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If your rewards involve family together time or healthy social activity, you
can encourage positive bonds as well as focused studying. Even something as
simple as a walk up to the cor ner for ice cre am may be enough to convince a young
person to buckle down and prepare for s omething they’re a little nervous about.
The Best Exam Strategies Start With Prep
Exam strategies and techniques are as varied as the students who use them.
With a little time and patience, you could find test preparation skills that your child
will carry with them through a lifetime of learning. It will give them increased
confidence and pride for years to come [6].
Exercise 8. Make a summary of the following article. Pay attention to
the language of the summary, take into account all the above mentioned
information about scientific article summary.
What's the diffe re nce bet we e n ded uc tiv e re aso ni ng a nd inductive reasoning?
March 6, 2024, by Alina Bradford, Nicoletta Lanese, Mindy Weisberger
Deductive r e asoning an d inductive reasoning are easy to mix up. Sherlock Holmes,
the fictional sleuth who famously resides on Baker Street, is known for his
impressive powers of logical reasoning. With a quick visual swee p of a crime
scene, he generates hypotheses, gathers observations and draws inferences that
ultimately reveal the re sponsible criminal's me thods and ident ity.
Holmes is often said to be a master of deductive reasoning, but he also leans
heavily on inductive reasoning. Because of their similar names, however, these
concepts are easy to mix up.
So, what's the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning? Read
on to learn the key distinctions between these two modes of logic used by literary
detectives and real-lif e scientists alike.
What is deductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning, also known as deduction, is a basic form of reasoning
that uses a ge neral principle or premise as grounds t o draw specific conclusions.
This type of reasoning leads to valid conclusions when the premise is known
to be true – for example, “all spiders have eight legs” is known to be a true
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statement. Ba sed o n that pr emise, one can reason a bly conclude that, bec a use
tarantulas are spiders, the y, too, must have eight legs.
The scientific method uses deduction to test scientific hypotheses and
theories, which predict certain outcomes if they are correct, said Sylvia
Wassertheil-Smoller, a researcher and professor emerita at Albert Einstein College
of Medicine.
“We go from the general – the theory – to the specific – the observations,”
Wassertheil-Smoller told Live Science. In other words, theories and hypotheses
can be built on past knowledge and accepted rules, and then tests are conducted to
see whether those known principles apply to a specific case.
Deductive reasoning begins with a first premise, which is followed by a
second premise and an inference, or a conclusion based on reasoning and evidence.
A common form of deductive reasoning is the “syllogism”, in which two
statements – a major premise and a minor premise – together reach a logical
conclusion.
For example, the major premise “Every A is B” could be followed by the
minor premise “This C is A”. Those statements would lead to the conclusion that
“This C is B”. Syllogisms are considered a good way to t est dedu ctiv e reason ing to
make sure the a rgument is valid.
In deductive reasoning, if something is true of a class of things in general, it
is also true f or all members of that class.
Deductive conclusions are reliable provided that the premises they're based
on are true, but you run into trouble if they're false, according to Norman Herr, a
professor of secondary education at California State University, Northridge. For
instance, the argument “All bald men are grandfathers. Harold is bald. Therefore,
Harold is a grandfather,” is logically valid, but it is untrue because the original
premise is fa lse.
What is inductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning uses specific and limited observations to draw general
conclusion s tha t can be applied more widely. So while deduct ive reasoning is more
103
of a top-down approach – moving from a general premise to a specific case –
inductive reason ing is the opposite. It uses a bottom-up approach to generate new
premises, or hypotheses, based on observed patterns, according to the University of
Illinois.
Inductive reasoning is also called inductive logic or inference. “In inductive
inference, we go from the specific to the general,” Wassertheil-Smoller told Live
Science. “We make many observations, discern a pattern, make a generalization,
and infer an explanation or a theory.”
In science, she added, there is a constant interplay between inductive and
deductive reasoning that leads researchers steadily closer to a truth that can be
verified with certainty.
The reliability of a conclusion made with inductive logic depends on the
completeness of the observations. For instance, let's say you have a bag of coins;
you pull three coins from the bag, and each coin is a penny. Using inductive logic,
you might then propose that all of the coins in the bag are pennies.
Even though all of the initial observations – that each coin taken from the
bag was a penny – are correct, inductive reasoning does not guarantee that the
conclusion will be true. The next coin you pull could be a quarter.
Here's another example: “Penguins are birds. Penguins can't fly. Therefore,
no birds can fly.” The conclusion does not follow logically from the statements,
because the only birds included in the sa mple were penguins.
Despite this inherent limitation, inductive reasoning has its place in the
scientific method, and scientists use it to form hypotheses and theories.
Researchers then use deductive reasoning to apply the theories to specific
situations.
What is abductive reason ing?
Another form of scientific reasoning that diverges from inductive and
deductive reasoning is ca lled abductive. Abductive r easoning is a form of logic that
starts with an incomplete set of observations and proceeds to the likeliest possible
explanation for that data , according to Butte College in Oroville, Californ ia.
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It is based on making and testing hypotheses using the best information
available. It often entails making an educated guess after observing a phenomenon
for which there is no clea r ex pl ana t io n.
For example, a person walks into their living room and finds torn-up papers
all over the floor. The person's dog has been alone in the apartment all day. The
person concludes that the dog tore up the papers because it is the most likely
scenario. It's possible that a family member with a key to the apartment swung by
and destroyed the papers, or it may have been done by the landlord. But the dog
theory is the most likely conclusion based on the da ta at hand.
Abductive reasoning is useful for forming hypotheses to be tested. For
instance, abductive reasoning is used by doctors when they're assessing which
ailment a patient likely has based on their symptoms. They then check which
potential diagnosis is correct using medical tests. Jurors also use abductive
reasoning to make decisions based on the select evidence presented to them by
lawyers an d witnesses [7].
Exercise 8. Make a summary of the following article. Pay attention to
the language of the summary, take into account all the above mentioned
information about scientific article summary.
Ritual text' from lost Indo-European language discovered on ancient clay
tablet in Turkey
Sep 2023, by Tom Metcalfe
Researchers are still studying the ancient text of an unknown language,
written in cuneiform on a clay tablet.
Words from a “lost” language spoken more than 3,000 years ago have been
discovere d on an ancient clay tablet unearthed in Turkey.
Archaeologists discovered the tablet earlier this year during excavations at
Boğazköy-Hattuşa in north-central Turkey, the site of Hattusha, the Hittite capital
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from about 1 600 B.C. until about 1200 B.C. and now a UNESCO World Heritage
site.
Annual expeditions to the site led by Andreas Schachner, an archaeologist at
the German Archaeological Institute, have unearthed thousands of clay tablets
written in cuneiform – perhaps the most ancient written script, created by the
Sumerians in Mesopotamia more than 5, 000 years ago.
The tablets are “mainly found in clusters connected to half a dozen
buildings,” sometimes described as archives or libraries, Schachner told Live
Science. “But we find text all over the [ site] that are moved around by erosion.”
Most of the tablets unearthed at Boğazköy-Hattuşa are written in the
language of the Hittites, but a few include words from other languages –
apparently because the Hittites were interested in foreign religious rituals.
The words in the previously unknown language appear to be from such a
ritual, which was recorded on a single clay tablet along with writing in Hittite
explaining what it was.
“The introduction is in Hittite,” Schachner said in an email. “It is clear that it
is a ritual te xt.”
Lost language
The clay tablet was one of several sent to Germany to be analyzed, where it
was studied by Daniel Schwemer, a professor and chair of Ancient Near Eastern
Studies at the University of Würzburg. From the Hittite introduction, he identified
it as the language of Kalašma, a region on the north-western edge of the Hittite
heartland n e ar the modern Turkish city of Bolu.
The scholars don't know what it says yet, and they're not releasing any
photograp hs of the table t until it has been fully stu died.
But they've determined that it belongs to the Anatolian group of the IndoEuropean family of languages, which the Hittite language also belonged to; other
ancient languages in the region, including Akkadian, Hebrew and Aramaic, belong
to the Semitic family of la nguages.
106
Schwemer said in a statement that “the Hittites were uniquely interested in
recording rituals in foreign languages.” Extracts of rituals in other foreign
languages have also been found in the tablets from Boğazköy-Hattuşa, including in
the Indo-European languages Luwian and Palaic and a non-Indo-European
language known as Hattic.
Such ritual texts were written by Hittite scribes and reflected various
Anatolian, Syrian and Mesopotamian traditions an d linguistic milieus.
“The rituals provide valuable glimpses into the little-known linguistic
landscapes of Late Bronze Age Anatolia, where not just Hittite was spoken,”
Schwemer said.
Hittite Empire
For centuries, the Hittites, who ruled over most of Anatolia (modern-day
Turkey) and Syria, were among the most powerful empires in the ancient world. In
1274 B.C., the Hittites fought the Battle of Kadesh against the Egyptians for
control of Canaan – what's now southern Syria, Lebanon and Israel.
The battle may be the earliest military action ever recorded. It seems to have
been a defeat for the Hittites; although they kept control of the city of Kadesh, the
Egyptians ke pt co ntr ol of Ca naa n.
Hattusha became the Hittite capital in about 1600 B.C.; and more than 100
years of archaeological excavations at the site have revealed a vast ancient city
there.
But it was abandoned in about 1200 B.C. during the cataclysmic “Late
Bronze Age collapse” that suddenly ended or damaged many ancient states in the
eastern Mediterranean; the collapse has been ascribed to invasions by migrants
called the “Sea Peop les”, sudd en climate ch anges, and dis ruptive n ew technol ogies
like iron – but historians and archa e o logists debate t he causes.
Schachner said it wasn't possible to foresee if any other writings in the «lost»
language would be found, or if extracts from still other ancient languages would be
found in the tablets from Boğazköy-Hattuşa [7].
107
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