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Файл:History of the USA Literature. Study aid
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The Modern Period (Modernism) (1914–1939)
Novelists include Gertrude Stein, John Dos Passos, F. Scott Fitzgerald, John
Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, Sinclair Lewis. The Modern Period
contains within it certain sub movements including the Jazz Age, the Harlem
Renaissance and the Lost Generation. Many of these writers were influenced by
World War I and the disillusionment that followed.
The Contemporary Period (1939 — Present) (Postmodernism,
Poststructuralism)
After World War II, American literature becomes broad and varied in themes,
modes, and purposes. The common term used for it is Postmodernism. There are a lot
of writers whose works may be considered “classic: Kurt Vonnegut, John Updike,
Arthur Miller, Toni Morrison, Thomas Pynchon, Tennessee Williams, Saul Bellow,
Robert Penn Warren and others.
1.2. NATIONAL PECULIARITIES OF AMERICAN LITERATURE
National Peculiarities of American Literature were determined by the unique
historical development of the USA, by the whole set of factors, which formed the
character and mentality of the American nation, their culture and way of life: the
nation infanthood and colonization, multiculturalism and multiethnic structure of the
population, existence of frontier and slavery, the evolvement of the American Dream
and Puritanism.
1) The nation infanthood and colonization. The first settlers of the North
American continent were Englishmen who founded the first colonies at Jamestown
and Plymouth at the beginning of the XVII century. They escaped religious
persecution in their homeland and fled to the New World in search of spiritual
freedom. They forced the spirit of Puritanism in the colonies.
However, the new reality shaped unique features of the young nation. A new
civilization differed from the European one. The notion of “The New World”
reflected the attitude of the first settlers who rejected any class division and
inequality.
2) Multiculturalism and multiethnic population. Waves of adventurous
entrepreneurial bold immigrants, coming from Europe and Asia, contributed different
traditions and values into American culture. In the course of historical development
these ethnic groups got into the common “melting pot”.
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A “Melting pot” is a metaphor introduced by John Hector Crevecoeur (1735–
1813), the founder of secular American literature. Multiethnic population defined
unique peculiarities of American literature.
Though the Native Americans, the Indians, were extinct, Indian folklore
integrated into the literature and culture of the USA. The Indian folklore conveys a
system of values based on harmony with nature, equality and justice (the works by
J.F. Cooper, Herman Melville, Mark Twain and others).
3) Existence of slavery. The culture of enslaved Afro-Americans, having been
on the periphery for a long time, influenced the literature of the whites (Walt
Whitman, Mark Twain, William Falkner). In the XX century Afro-American writers
of the world significance appeared, for example Toni Morrison.
4) Frontier. A significant feature of the historical development of the country
was the presence of the unexplored and unoccupied lands until the middle of the 19th
century. Settling down and hard work on these lands shaped the lives of many
generations of Americans.
The frontier was a border between civilization and wilderness moving
westward all the time as the lands were being occupied by the pioneers, hunters and
farmers. The frontier with its folklore, jokes, traditions and humour played an
important role in American literature, which is seen in the works by Bret Harte, Jack
London, Mark Twain, Washington Irving. Frontier formed such features of American
mentality as love for freedom, individualism, optimism, industry and entrepreneurial
spirit.
5) The evolvement of the American Dream. The American Dream is
a complicated set of hopes, beliefs, and opinions of many citizens of the USA. It
includes the ideals of freedom and equal opportunities, self-reliance and selfrealization.
The concept of the American Dream was established by the Founding Fathers
of the American democratic system George Washington, Benjamin Franklin and
Thomas Paine.
The critical evaluation of this phenomenon is present in such novels as “An
American Tragedy” by Theodore Dreiser, “The Great Gatsby” by Francis Scott
Fitzgerald and others.
6) Puritanism. Puritans saw their experiment as a model for the rest of the
world to imitate. They were a religious group of English protestants in the XVI–XVII
centuries. They wanted to “purify” the Church of England of its remaining Catholic
influence and rituals. They wanted to return to the simple faith of the New Testament.
They were self-made and self-educated. Puritanism rests on ambition, hard work, and
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striving for success. The influence of Puritanism on American mentality and
literature is significant. Since the time of Puritans America has become a synonym
for a community of spiritually regenerated people whose mission is spreading the
ideas of salvation and freedom throughout the entire world.
1.3. INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TO AMERICAN LITERATURE
The main genres of Indian Literature were myths, legends, tales and songs. The
Indians didn’t have any written language, they transmitted them orally from
generation to generation. In Indian stories nature is alive and is endowed with spirit;
main characters may be animals or plants. Native Americans saw animals, plants, and
the forces of nature as part of a great sacred cycle of life that humans must treat with
respect.
The Sacred Cycle of Life. Owning the Land
Native Americans’ belief that the entire earth and all the living things that
inhabit it are sacred affected their attitude towards land ownership. In their view, no
one could own land. It belonged in common to all people and other living things that
inhabited it.
This concept of common land ownership contrasted sharply the ideas of the
European settlers, who had a fierce desire to possess their own land. Violent conflicts
often resulted when Native American leaders signed treaties which they usually did
not understand that opened lands to white colonization.
Here is one of Native American songs entitled “I Have Killed the Deer” by
Taos Pueblo. It embodies the Indians’ concept of Nature as the great sacred cycle of
life into which any person is included.
I have killed the deer.
I have crushed the grasshopper
And the plants he feeds upon.
I have cut through the heart
Of trees growing old and straight.
I have taken fish from water
And birds from the sky.
In my life I have needed death
So that my life can be.
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When I die I must give life
To what has nourished me.
The earth receives my body
And gives it to the plants
And to the caterpillars
To the birds
And to the coyotes
Each in its own turn so that
The circle of life is never broken [1, p. 8].
The Indian contribution to American literature and the American English
language is great. There are hundreds of Indian words in everyday American English.
They usually denote everyday objects like “a canoe”, items of clothing and footwear,
such as “moccasins”, names of plants, vegetables, fruit and animals: “tobacco,”
“potato,” “persimmon,” “moose,” “raccoon,” “tomahawk,” and “totem”. Totem is an
object, an animal or a plant serving as an emblem of a family and used for religious
worshipping.
1.4. THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD
In the XV century Europeans started exploring the rest of the world. The main
reasons for the exploration were the growth of trade between Europe and Asia and
advances in navigation and shipbuilding.
One of the explorers was Christopher Columbus. He was an Italian explorer,
but his 1492 expedition was funded by the Queen of Spain, Isabella. All in all he
made four voyages from Spain to America. In 1493 Columbus printed a journal
entitled “Epistola” (Letters) which recounted the trip’s drama: the terror of the men,
who feared monsters and thought they might fall off the edge of the world; the
nearmutiny; the fake of the ships’ logs Columbus made so the men would not know
how much farther they had travelled than anyone had gone before; and the first
sighting of land as they neared America.
In the XVII–XVIII centuries a number of colonies were founded in America.
At the beginning the Portuguese and Spaniards occupied the rich gold and silver
fields of South America. The Dutch and the French began the colonization of North
America. The Dutch created their own colony around the Hudson River. They called
it New Netherlands. The French occupied the territory that is the eastern part of
Canada today.
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England played an important role in the colonization of North America, too.
But initial English attempts at colonization were a disaster. The first English colony
was set up in 1585; all its colonists disappeared. Another colony was more
permanent. It was established in 1607 and was called Jamestown. It endured
starvation, brutality, and misrule. Why were the settlers ready to endure all those
hardships? Why did they come to the new world? The reason was that they were
persecuted in their homeland for their religious beliefs. They separated from the
Church of England (Anglican Church) and sought spiritual freedom in the New
World. Nowadays they are called Pilgrim Fathers.
Captain John Smith was the commander of the expedition of the three ships
which landed in Virginia in 1607. His literary work “A true relation of Virginia”
became the main record of the colony in Jamestown. Captain John Smith became one
of the leaders of the colony. Smith was an incurable romantic, and he seems to have
embroidered his adventures. To him we owe the famous story of the Indian maiden,
Pocahontas. The story has been staged by W. Disney and became a famous cartoon.
Whether fact or fiction, the tale integrated in American history and culture.
The story recounts Pocahontas, the favorite daughter of an Indian Chief, saving
Captain Smith’s life when he was a prisoner. Later, Pocahontas was given to the
English as a hostage, but her gentleness, intelligence, and beauty impressed the
English, and, in 1614, she married a wealthy English gentleman. The marriage
initiated an eight-year peace between the colonists and the Indians, ensuring the
survival of the new colony.
Another colony was set up in 1620; a large group of Englishmen landed their
ship, the Mayflower, and founded the colony of Plymouth. They were the second
wave of permanent colonists and brought their wives, children, tools for farming and
craftwork. They were called Puritans.
Puritans were a religious group of English Protestants who wanted to “purify”
the Anglican Church of its remaining Catholic influence. So the term “Puritans” was
coined. What were Puritans characterized by?
– Puritans wanted religious freedom but did not tolerate any other religions.
– They were in many cases self-made and self-educated.
– Puritanism rests on ambition, hard work, and striving for success, emphasis
on simplicity and practicality.
– The Puritans felt that in advancing their own profit and their community’s
well-being, they were executing God’s plans. They also believed that they had a God-
given responsibility to establish an ideal way of life in America.
– The great model of writing, belief, and conduct was the Bible.
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– Puritans dressed plainly and held simple religious services in undecorated
meetinghouses. In financial questions puritans are characterized by shrewdness and
mercantilism.
– The influence of Puritanism on American mentality and literature
is significant. It is from Puritans that referring to America as the Promised Land, as
the New Jerusalem originates.
– Following Puritans’ views on life, modern Americans still believe in their
chosenness and exclusiveness.
– The best known expression from this period is the “American Dream”. It is
used to describe expectations of settlers seeking a new life, and of the poor striving
for riches and social status.
1.5. THE COLONIAL PERIOD IN AMERICAN LITERATURE (1607–1775)
What was American literature like in the colonial period? The colonial
literature recorded the experience of exploration and settlement. The main genres
were diaries, letters, travel journals, religious histories. The Puritans’ plainness was
shown in their writings, which employed straightforward language and often focused
on their faith. The typical theme was “Life as a test”.
The most famous literary works of the colonial period belong to William
Bradford and Roger Williams.
William Bradford (1590–1657) was elected governor of Plymouth Colony.
He was the first historian of this colony. His book, “Of Plymouth Plantation” (1651),
is an account of the colony’s beginning. An extract from this work presents a justly
famous description of the first view of America: “Being thus passed the vast ocean,
and a sea of troubles... they had now no friends to welcome them nor inns to entertain
or refresh their weatherbeaten bodies; no houses or much less towns to repair to, to
seek for succor... savage barbarians... were readier to fill their sides with arrows than
otherwise.” [2]
William Bradford was deeply pious, that is religious. The extract below proves
the colonists believed that God’s power and will were the main forces that
determined their lives:
“September 6. These troubles being blown over, and now all being compact
together in one ship [the Mayflower], they put to sea again with a prosperous wind;
yet, according to the usual manner, many were afflicted with sea sickness. And I may
not omit here a special work of God’s providence. There was a proud young man, one
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of the seamen, of a lusty, able body; he would always be condemning the poor people
in their sickness, and cursing them daily telling them that he hoped to help to cast half
of them overboard. But it pleased God before they came half seas over, to smite this
young man with a grievous disease, of which he died in a desperate manner, and so
was himself the first that was thrown overboard. Thus his curses light on his own
head, and it was an astonishment to all his fellows, for they noted it to be the just
hand of God upon him.” From “Of Plymouth Plantation” by William Bradford [3].
Roger Williams (1603–1683) suffered for his own views on religion. Puritans
were very intolerant to other religions. Many people suffered from this intolerance.
Roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts in the middle of severe winter in
1635. He survived only by living with the Indians; in 1636, he established a new
colony at Rhode Island that would welcome people of different religions. His
intercultural experience of living among the Indians accounts for the significance of
the book he wrote: “A Key into the Languages of America” (1643). It is the first
phrase book of Indian languages. Each chapter is devoted to one topic — for
example, eating and mealtime. Indian words and phrases pertaining to this topic are
mixed with comments, anecdotes, and a concluding poem. It’s but natural he became
a lifelong friend of the Indians.
Summing up, religion was a major factor in American colonial culture. Groups
of Protestants from England, such as the Pilgrims and the Puritans, founded
settlements in New England in 1607 (Jamestown) and 1620 (Plymouth). The writings
of the Puritans at that time are characterized by the belief in a God-given mission to
offer an example of an ideal community to the world.
1.6. THE ENLIGHTENMENT / THE AGE OF REASON /
THE REVOLUTIONARY AGE (1765–1790)
The Enlightenment in American literature started a decade before the
Revolutionary war. The major reasons of the war were growing self-consciousness,
awareness of the basic human right for freedom and resistance against British
unpopular tax laws. Britain raised taxes on transportation and goods. So Americans
came to believe that they should have more independence from the British Empire
and an increase in political and economic rights.
The War of Independence against the British Empire lasted for eight years
(1775–1783). The war ended in adopting the Declaration of Independence. А
Federative Democratic Republic — the United States of America — was founded.
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This event was extremely significant for the further development of the country, as it
gave freedom and independence to the American colonies. The War of Independence
is often called а revolution because of its great significance.
This period in American Literature is called the Enlightenment. Its other name
is The Age of Reason. It is called so because it was a rational period. Common sense
ruled the day. Common sense was the guide in thought and conduct, in commerce
and industry. The problem of vital importance was the study of man and the origin of
his good and evil qualities.
The main genres of the Enlightenment in American Literature were the essay,
the political pamphlet, autobiographies and revolutionary poetry.
American literature of the Enlightenment is characterized bу its fighting
character. Thomas Paine (1737–1809) was the most radical representative of the
American Enlightenment movement.
Before the war, hе published his pamphlet Соттоп Sense which urged the
separation of the American colonies from England. During the War of Independence
hе wrote The Crisis (1776–1783), а series of pamphlets, containing his comments оn
the events of the war. Another prominent work of his is The Rights of Маn (1791–
1792), а political essay.
The culture of the American colonies was shaped by the practical, pioneer
spirit of settlers who had left their homelands to seek a better life. The career of
Benjamin Franklin reflected the colonists’ ability to rise in the world. He began life
as one of seventeen children in a poor family. He ended as a businessman, an
influential politician, and a famous writer and scientist. That’s why he is called a selfmade man.
Benjаmin Frаnklin (1706–1790) is the most prolific rерrеsеntаtivе of the
Еnlightеnmеnt. Franklin’s pamphlets and essays were published in his famous Poor
Richard’s Almanac (1732–1757). Fгаnklin also made а fundаmеntаl соntribution to
the Dесlаrаtiоn of Indереndеnсе.
He is the author of Autobiography which is a famous work on self-
improvement. Here is an extract from The Autobiography by Benjamin Franklin
giving a list of human virtues and good qualities which every person should develop
on his way to self-improvement.
“1. Temperance. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation.
2. Silence. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling
conversation.
3. Order. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business
have its time.
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4. Resolution. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what
you resolve.
5. Frugality. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste
nothing.
6. Industry. Lose no time; be always employed in something useful; cut off all
unnecessary actions.
7. Sincerity. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you
speak, speak accordingly.
8. Justice. Wrong none by doing injuries or omitting the benefits that are your
duty.
9. Moderation. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think
they deserve.
10. Cleanliness. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation.
11. Tranquility. Be not disturbed at trifles or at accidents common or
unavoidable.
12. Chastity. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness,
weakness, or the injury of your own or another’s peace or reputation.
13. Humility. Imitate Jesus and Socrates.” [4]
Thus, the maturing American society emphasized the importance of self-
improvement through education. It was believed that learning was a defense against
evil. The writings of Benjаmin Franklin inspired many people around the world to
undertake self-improvement.
The effect of a bold, enterprising spirit coupled with education and self-
improvement was the emergence of outstanding political leaders in the colonies. One
of these leaders was Thomas Jefferson.
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) was а lawyer, a philosopher, an architect, and
a statesman. But his greatest contribution to American Literature and the world
history is his draft of the Declaration of Independence. In 1776, as а member of the
Continental Соngress, hе was in the committee of five (The Founding Fathers) to
draft the Dесlаration of Independence. Не outlined the principles of revolutionary
democracy. He also listed basic human rights, including the natural right of the
colonists to be free. He also believed that they had a right to establish their own
independent government. In 1800 Jefferson won the elections and served two terms
as President of the USA.
Passing over to poetry, we should mention Philip Freneau (1752–1832) who
was the most оutstаnding poet of the Rеvоlutiоn. Не wrote political poems mostly,
such as А Poem of the Rising Glory of America (1772), То the Americans (1775). It’s
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obvious he was very patriotic and the very titles of his poems contain the name of his
country and the nation.
He also wrote lyrical poems of which The Indian Burying Ground (1788) and
The Wild Ноnеу Suckle (1785) аrе the best.
THE WILD HONEY SUCKLE (1785)
Fair flower, that dost so comely grow,
Hid in this silent, dull retreat,
Untouched thy honied blossoms blow,
Unseen thy little branches greet:
No roving foot shall crush thee here,
No busy hand provoke a tear.
By Nature’s self in white arrayed,
She bade thee shun the vulgar eye,
And planted here the guardian shade,
And sent soft waters murmuring by;
Thus quietly thy summer goes,
Thy days declining to repose.
Smit with those charms, that must decay,
I grieve to see your future doom;
They died — nor were those flowers more gay,
The flowers that did in Eden bloom;
Unpitying frosts, and Autumn’s power
Shall leave no vestige of this flower.
From morning suns and evening dews
At first thy little being came:
If nothing once, you nothing lose,
For when you die you are the same;
The space between, is but an hour,
The frail duration of a flower. [5]
The poem is about a short life of a flower. But the flower is a metaphor. It is
associated with a human.
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