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Файл:Теоретическая фонетика английского языка = English Theoretical Phonetics. Учебное пособие
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UNIT 2.
PHONEME AS A UNIT OF LANGUAGE
Speech sounds are produced by man’s organs of speech, travel in
sound waves, and are perceived by man’s hearing mechanism as sounds
of language functioning as units capable of dierentiating meanings of
the words. It follows that speech sounds dier from each other in their
physical (acoustic) properties, in the way they are produced by the organs
of speech and in their features which take part or do not take part in
dierentiating the meaning. It is possible to distinguish the following
four aspects:
y articulatory;
y acoustic;
y auditory;
y functional.
The articulatory / sound production aspect means that from
the articulatory point of view every speech sound is a complex of denite
coordinated and dierentiated movements and positions of speech
organs. The movements and positions necessary for the production of
a speech sound constitute its articulation.
The acoustic aspect means every speech sound is a complex of
acoustic eects and has its physical (acoustic) properties, consisting of:
1) frequency; 2) spectrum; 3) intensity; 4) duration.
The auditory / sound-perception aspect involves the mechanism
of hearing. It is a kind of psychological mechanism which reacts to
the physical properties of speech sounds, selecting from a great amount
of information only the one which is linguistically relevant.
The functional aspect is called so because of the role the sounds of
language play in its functioning as medium of human communication.
11
Unit 2. Phoneme as a Unit of Language
2.1. General Characteristics of Phonemes
When we talk about the sounds of a language, the term “sound” can
be interpreted in two rather dierent ways. A linguist uses two separate
terms. “Phoneme” is used to mean “sound” in its contrastive sense, e. g.:
tie – die, seat – seed. “Allophone” is used for sounds which are variants of
a phoneme. They usually occur in dierent positions in the word (i. e. in
dierent environments) and hence cannot contrast with each other, nor be
used to make meaningful distinctions.
V.A. Vasilyev dened the phoneme like this: “The segmental phoneme
is the smallest (i. e. further indivisible into smaller consecutive segments)
language unit (sound type) that exists in the speech of all the members of
a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of
distinguishing one word of the same language or one grammatical form
of a word from another grammatical form of the same word”.
The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech
in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same
language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.
Firstly, the phoneme is a functional unit. Function is usually understood to mean discriminatory function, that is, the role of the various
components of the phonetic system of the language in distinguishing one
morpheme from another, one word from another or also one utterance
from another. It performs the following functions:
y constitutive: it constitutes words;
y distinctive: it makes one word distinct from the other;
y recognitive: it helps to recognize words.
Secondly, the phoneme is real and objective. That means that it is
realized in speech of all English-speaking people in the form of speech
sounds, its allophones. The sets of speech sounds, that is the allophones
belonging to the same phoneme are not identical in their articulatory
content though there remains some phonetic similarity between them.
Let us consider the English phoneme [d], which when not aected by
the articulation of the preceding or following sounds is a plosive, forelingual apical, alveolar, lenis stop. This is how it sounds in isolation or
in such words as door [dɔ:] or darn [da:n], when it retains its typical
articulatory characteristics. In this case the consonant [d] is called the
principal allophone. At the same time there are changes in the articulation
of allophones that occur under the inuence of the neighbouring sounds
12
2.1. General Characteristics of Phonemes
in dierent phonetic situations. Such allophones are called subsidiary.
[d] is slightly palatalized before front vowels and the sonorant [j], e. g.:
deal [di:l], day [deı], did you [dıd jə]. [d] is pronounced without any
plosion before another stop, e. g.: bedtime [bedtaı m], good dog [gʋd
dᴅg]. It is pronounced with the nasal plosion before the nasal sonorants
[n] and [m], e. g.: sudden [sʌdn], admit [əd’mıt]. The plosion is lateral
before the lateral sonorant [l], e. g.: middle [mıdl], bad light [bæd laıt].
Followed by [r] the consonant [d] becomes post-alveolar, e. g.: dry [draı],
dream [dri:m]. Followed by the interdental [θ], [ð] it becomes dental,
e. g.: breadth [bredθ], lead the way [li:d ðə weı]. When [d] is followed
by the labial [w] it becomes labialized, e. g.: dweller [dwelə]. In the
initial position [d] is partially devoiced, e. g.: dog [d ᴅg], dean [di:n]; in
the intervocalic position or when followed by a sonorant it is fully voiced,
e. g.: order [′ɔ:də], leader [li:də]; in the word-nal position it is voiceless,
e. g.: road [rəʋd].
Allophones are arranged into functionally similar groups, that is
groups of sounds in which the members of each group are not opposed
to one another, but are opposable to members of any other group to
distinguish meanings in otherwise similar sequences. But the allophones
which are realized in speech do not correspond exactly to the allophone
predicted by this or that phonetic environment. They are modied by
phonostylistic, dialectal and individual factors.
Thirdly, allophones of the same phoneme function as the same
linguistic unit. The native speaker is quite readily aware of the phonemes
of his language but much less aware of the allophones. The reason is
that the phonemes dierentiate words like tie and die from each other.
Allophones have no such function. At the same time allophones of each
phoneme possess a bundle of features that makes this phoneme functionally
dierent from all other phonemes of the language. This functionally relevant
bundle of articulatory features is called the invariant of the phoneme.
Neither of the articulatory features that form the invariant of the phoneme
can be changed without aecting the meaning. All the allophones of
the phoneme [d], for instance, are occlusive, forelingual, lenis. If occlusive
articulation is changed for constrictive one [d] will be replaced by [z], e. g.:
breed [bri:d] – breeze [bri:z]. [d] will be replaced by [g] if the forelingual
articulation is replaced by the backlingual one, e. g.: dear [dıə] – gear [gıə].
The lenis articulation of [d] cannot be substituted by the fortis one because
13
Unit 2. Phoneme as a Unit of Language
it will also bring about changes in meaning, e. g.: ladder [′lædə] – latter
[′lætə].
The articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme
are called distinctive or relevant. To extract a relevant feature of
the phoneme it is necessary to oppose it to some other phoneme in the same
phonetic context. If the opposed sounds dier in one articulatory feature
and this dierence brings about changes in the meaning of the words
the contrasting features are called relevant. For example, the words port
[pɔ:t] and court [kɔ:t] dier in one consonant only. Both sounds are
occlusive and fortis, the only dierence being that [p] is labial and [k] is
backlingual. Therefore it is possible to say that labial and backlingual
articulations are relevant in the system of English consonants.
The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning
are called nondistinctive, irrelevant or redundant. It is impossible in
English to oppose an aspirated [p] to a non-aspirated one in the same
phonetic context to distinguish meanings. That is why aspiration is a nondistinctive feature of English consonants.
If an allophone of some phoneme is replaced by an allophone of
a dierent phoneme the meaning of the word is inevitably aected.
If an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of
the same phoneme the invariant of the phoneme is not modied and
consequently the meaning of the word is not aected. When the vowel [i:]
is fully long in such a word as sheep [ʃi:p], for instance, the quality of it
remaining the same, the meaning of the word does not change.
Fourthly, the phoneme is abstract or generalized and that is reected
in its denition as a language unit. It is an abstraction because we make it
abstract from concrete realizations for classicatory purposes.
The abstractional and material aspects of the phoneme have given
rise to the appearance of transcription. Transcription is a set of symbols
representing speech sounds. This set of symbols diers according to
whether the aim is to indicate the phoneme, i. e. a functional unit as
a whole, or to reect the modications of its allophones as well.
The rst type of notation, the broad or phonemic transcription,
provides special symbols for all the phonemes of a language.
The second type, the narrow or allophonic transcription, suggests
special symbols including some information about articulatory activity
of particular allophonic features.
14
2.2. Main Trends in Phoneme Theor y
The broad transcription is mainly used for practical expedience,
the narrow type serves the purposes of research work. The type of broad
transcription, rst introduced by V.A. Vasilyev, is used in our country.
The narrow or phonetic transcription provides special symbols to
denote not only the phoneme as a language unit but also its allophonic
modications. The symbol [h], for instance, indicates aspirated
articulation, e. g.: [kʰeit] – [skeit].
Table 2. Broad and Narrow Transcription Variations
Sample Broad Transcription Narrow Transcription
Please [pliz] [pḷ i:z]
Kill [kɪl] [kʰ ɪɫ]
2.2. Main Trends in Phoneme Theory
The mentalistic or psychological view regards the phoneme as
an ideal “mental image” or a target at which the speaker aims. According
to this conception allophones of the phoneme are varying materializations
of it. This view was originated by the founder of the phoneme theory,
the Russian linguist I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay.
The functional view regards the phoneme as the minimal sound
unit by which meanings may be dierentiated without much regard to
actually pronounced speech sounds. Meaning dierentiation is taken to
be a dening characteristic of phonemes.
Thus the absence of palatalization in the light [l] and palatalization
of the dark [ł] in English do not dierentiate meanings, and therefore [l]
and [ł] cannot be assigned to dierent phonemes but both form allophones
of the phoneme [l]. This view is shared by N. Trubetskoy, L. Bloomeld,
R. Jakobson, M. Halle.
The functional view of the phoneme gave rise to a branch of linguistics
called phonology or phonemics which is concerned with relationships
between contrasting sounds in a language. Its special interest lies in
establishing the system of distinctive features of the language concerned.
The abstract view of the phoneme regards phonemes as essentially
independent of the acoustic and physiological properties associated with
them, that is of speech sounds. This view of the phoneme was pioneered
by L. Hjelmslev and his associates in the Copenhagen Linguistic Circle,
H.J. Uldall and K. Togby.
15
Unit 2. Phoneme as a Unit of Language
The views of the phoneme discussed above regard the phoneme as
an abstract conception existing in the mind but not in the reality, that is
in human speech, speech sounds being only phonetic manifestations of
these conceptions.
The physical view, propounded by D. Jones and shared by B. Bloch
and G. Trager, regards the phoneme as a “family” of related sounds
satisfying certain conditions:
y the various members of the “family” must show phonetic similarity
to one another, in other words be related in character;
y no member of the “family” may occur in the same phonetic context
as any other.
2.3. Phonemic Inventory
The aim of the phonological analysis is, rstly, to determine which
dierences of sounds are phonemic (relevant for the dierentiation
of the phonemes) and which are non-phonemic and, secondly, to nd
the inventory of the phonemes of a language. The procedure of identifying
the phonemes of a language as the smallest language units has several
stages:
y the determining of the minimum segments and recording them
graphically by means of allophonic transcription. To do this an analyst
gathers a number of sound sequences with dierent meanings and
compares them. For example, the comparison of [sti:k] and [stæk] reveals
the segments (sounds) [i:] and [æ], comparison of [sti:k] and [spi:k]
reveals the segments [st] and [sp] and the further comparison of these two
with [ti:k] and [tæk], [si:k] and [sæk] splits these segments into smaller
segments [s], [t], [p]. There is no comparison that allows dividing [s] or [t]
or [p] into two, therefore it is possible to single out the minimal segments
opposing them to one another in the same phonetic context;
y the arranging of sounds into functionally similar groups.
There are two most widely used methods of nding it out.
The distributional method is mainly used to group all the sounds
pronounced by native speakers into phonemes according to the two laws
of phonemic and allophonic distribution:
y allophones of dierent phonemes occur in the same phonetic
context;
16
2.4. Phonological Opposition
y allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic
context.
The sounds of a language combine according to a certain pattern
characteristic of this language. Phonemic opposability depends on
the way the phonemes are distributed in their occurrence. If more or
less dierent sounds occur in the same phonetic context they should
be allophones of dierent phonemes. In this case their distribution is
contrastive. If similar speech sounds occur in dierent positions and
never occur in the same phonetic context they are allophones of one and
the same phoneme. In this case their distribution is complementary.
The semantic method is used to determine the phonemic status of
sounds which are not easily identied from phonological point of view.
The method is based on a phonemic rule that phonemes can distinguish
words and morphemes when opposed to one another. The semantic method
of identifying the phonemes of a language attaches great signicance to
meaning. It consists in systematic substitution of the sound for another
in order to ascertain in which cases such substitution leads to a change
of meaning. This procedure is called the commutation test. It consists
of nding minimal pairs of words and their grammatical forms. For
example, an analyst arrives at the sequence [pın]. He substitutes the sound
[p] for the sound [b] or [s], [d], [w]. The substitution leads to the change
of meaning, e. g.: pin, bin, sin, din, win. This would be an evidence that
[p], [b], [s], [d], [w] can be regarded as allophones of dierent phonemes.
2.4. Phonological Opposition
Both methods help to distinguish phonemes by establishing their
distinctive phonological oppositions. To be dierent, two phonemes
should have at least one relative distinctive phonological feature. If two
phonemes [p] and [b] are compared, they are both labial, bilabial,
occlusive, plosive, noise consonants. What diers them is that [p] is
voiceless and [b] is voiced. They are dierent only in one relative
distinctive phonological feature and they are a minimal pair as they exist
in words pen [pen] and Ben [ben]. The conclusion is that [p] and [b] are
two dierent phonemes and they are in phonological opposition.
Phonological oppositions can be:
y single, e. g.: [f] – [v] are constrictive noise fricative labio-dental,
where [f] voiceless, [v] voiced;
17
Unit 2. Phoneme as a Unit of Language
y double, e. g.: [b] – [d], where [b] is occlusive noise plosive labial
bilabial voiced, and [d] is occlusive, noise plosive forelingual apicalalveolar voiced;
y multiple, e. g.: [k] – [s], where [k] is occlusive noise plosive
backlingual voiceless, and [s] is constrictive noise fricative apical-alveolar
voiceless. The only features they have in common are that they are both
noise and voiceless.
Every speech sound is characterized by a number of distinctive
features, but not all of which are equally important for communication.
For example, lack of aspiration of the sounds [p], [t], [k] shows a foreign
accent but will not hinder communication. So the question is to decide
which of the features are relevant and which are irrelevant.
Phonological analysis makes a conclusion that:
y each phoneme is characterized by a certain number of phonologically
relevant features which are constant and distinctive, as they never change,
no matter what position this phoneme is and they always distinguish this
phoneme from any other;
y each allophone has all phonologically relevant features of its
phoneme plus a number of irrelevant features which distinguish one
allophone from another allophone of the same phoneme.
Oppositions in the system of English consonants:
y lenis vs. fortis opposition based on the force of articulation (voiced
vs. voiceless), e. g.: port [pɔ:t] and bought [ bɔ:t];
y opposition based on the active organ of speech, e. g.: wet [wet] and
vet [vet] (bilabial vs. labial);
y opposition based upon the type of obstruction, e. g.: cat [kæt] and
hat [hæt] (occlusive vs. constrictive).
Oppositions in the system of English vowels:
y opposition between monophthongs, e. g.: dark [d a: k] a nd duck [d ʌ k]
([ɑ:] vs. [ʌ]);
y opposition between monophthongs and diphthongs, e. g.: let [let]
and late [leɪt] ([e] vs. [eɪ]);
y opposition between diphthongs, e. g.: chair [ʧeə] and cheer [ʧɪə]
([eə] vs. [ɪə]).
The length of a vowel cannot be regarded as its relative distinctive
feature and can inuence only the accent, but not the meaning of the word.
18
2.4. Phonological Opposition
Questions
1. How many aspects of speech sounds can be dierentiated? What is
the essence of each aspect?
2. What is the phoneme?
3. What is an allophone?
4. What are the three aspects of a phoneme?
5. What allophones are called principal / subsidiary?
6. What is the invariant of the phoneme?
7. What is the dierence between distinctive and non-distinctive
articulatory features?
8. What types of transcription do you know?
9. What are the main trends in phoneme theory?
10. What are the methods of phonological analysis?
11. What is the dierence between relevant and irrelevant features of
sounds?
12. What are the types of phonological oppositions? Illustrate each
type with an example.
13. What are the oppositions in the system of English consonants?
14. What are the oppositions in the system of English vowels?
15. Why is length a non-distinctive feature of vowels?
Pract i c al Tasks
1. Make a glossary of main notions and give their denitions.
2. Choose the words in which the initial sounds are in phonological
opposition according to the distributional method. Prove your point
of view.
Tablet, mapping, belong, Samuel, broken, stand, family, patch, slam,
absolutely, at, character, badminton, slope, jam, black.
3. Dene the distinctive features that make the oppositions
phonologically relevant.
cap – cab latter – ladder coal – goal
supper – suer park – part raider – razor
till – chill murder – merger share – chair
thigh – shy save – shave log – long
rub – rum bad – ban thick – sick
19
Unit 2. Phoneme as a Unit of Language
4. Match the words to obtain minimal pairs. State the type of
opposition.
Catch, pip, cheap, sap, he, jail, lap, pair, say, sink, rip, fail, lass, Sam,
mink, cap, tear, she, lay, heap, match, lane, merry, knock, rice, berry,
right, moat, dock, hair, fame, dare, same, vain, bee, thee, boat.
5. Give ve examples of groups of words where one and the same
long phoneme is realized in allophones of dierent duration. Dene
in which word the sound is the longest / the shortest.
Table 3. Allophones of Dierent Duration
[i :] [ɜ:] [u :] [ɔ:] [ɑ:]
6. Give ve examples of each position.
Table 4. Oppositions
Single opposition Double opposition Multiple opposition
7. Give theoretical and practical proofs to explain constitutive,
recognitive and distinctive functions of phonemes.
8. Answer the questions using one-word / phrase answers.
1. How many aspects of speech sounds are distinguished?
2. The founder of the phoneme theory is … .
3. Features of phonemes involved in the dierentiation of the words
are called … .
4. What is the principal function of the phoneme?
5. The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning
are called … .
6. The phonemes of a language form a system of … .
7. The procedure of nding minimal pairs of words and their
grammatical forms is called … .
8. If more or less dierent sounds occur in the same phonetic context
their distribution is … .
9. Phonological oppositions can be … .
10. Lenis vs. fortis opposition is based on … .
20
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