Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Стилистика английского языка. Практикум для студентов 4 курса, направление подготовки «Лингвистика»
.pdf
Содержание
On the other hand, "The b-b-b-b-bas-tud - he seen me c-c-c-c-coming" in R. P. Warren's
Sugar Boy's speech or "You don't mean to thay that thith ith your firth time" show the
physical defects of the speakers – the stuttering of one and the lisping of the other.
functions of graphons
The
:
individualizing the character's speech, adding to his/her plausibility, vividness, memorability;
conveying the author’s attitude to the character;
conveying the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech
act.
Some amalgamated forms, which are the result of strong assimilation, became clichés in
contemporary prose dialogue:
"gimme" (give me), "lemme" (let me), "gonna" (going to), "gotta" (got to), "coupla" (couple
of), "mighta" (might have), "willya" (will you), etc.
This flavour of informality and authenticity brought graphon popularity with advertizers. Big
and small eating places invite customers to attend their "Donut (doughnut) Place", or the
"Rite Bread Shop", or the "Wok-in Fast Food Restaurant", etc.
The same is true about display and TV advertizing: "Sooper Class Model" cars, "Knee-hi"
socks, "Rite Aid" medicines. A recently published book on Cockney was entitled by the
authors "The Muwer Tongue"; on the back flaps of big freight-cars one can read "Folio me",
etc.
Graphical changes may reflect not only the peculiarities of pronunciation, but are also used to
convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus foregrounding the stressed words. To
such purely graphical means, not involving the violations, we should refer the following:
1) Italics
occupies the first place among graphical means of foregrounding according to
the frequency of usage and variability of functions. Shows the emphatic stress, indicates
foreign words, signals the change of narrator etc. Besides italicizing words, to add to their
logical or emotive significance, separate syllables and morphemes may also be emphasized by
italics (which is highly characteristic of D. Salinger or T. Capote).
Bold type
2)
3) Capitalization
may also serve these functions, but much more seldom.
s
hows intensity of speech, imitates a loud voice E.g. in the desperate
appeal in A. Huxley's Brave New World - "Help. Help. HELP."
4) Multiplication
also shows intensity of speech (often in commands) as in Babbitt's
shriek "Alllll aboarrrrrd"!
5) Hyphenation
suggests the rhymed or clipped manner in which a word or phrase is
uttered as in the humiliating comment from Fl. O'Connor's story - "grinning like a chim-pan-
zee". Sometimes it implies that a word was spelt.
Содержание
6) Spacing of graphemes and lines. The former was widely exercised in Russian poetry
by V. Mayakovsky, famous for his "steps" in verse lines, or A. Voznesensky. In English the
most often referred to "graphical imagist" was E. E. Cummings.
7) The unusual arrangement
of the text. (E.g. vertical, diagonal, a shape of something)
8) Handwriting
Practice
Comment on the following cases of phonetic expressive means:
1. He swallowed the hint with a gulp and a gasp and a grin.
2. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, the furrow followed free.
3. The Italian trio tut-tutted their tongues at me.
4. "You, lean, long, lanky lath of a lousy bastard!"
5. To sit in solemn silence in a dull dark dock, In a pestilential prison, with a life-long lock,
Awaiting the sensation of a short, sharp shock From a cheap and chippy chopper On a big
black block.
6. Then, with an enormous, shattering rumble, sludge-puff, sludge-puff, the train came into the
station.
7. "Sh-sh."
8. "But I am whispering." This continual shushing annoyed him.
9. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a
diamond in the sky.
10. Dreadful young creatures - squealing and squawking.
Indicate the kind of additional information about the speaker supplied by graphons:
1. "Ye've a duty to the public don'tcher know that, a duty to the great English public?" said
George reproachfully. "Here, lemme handle this, kiddar," said Tiger. "Gorra maintain strength,
you," said George. "Ah'm fightin' fit," said Tiger. – S. Chaplin.
2. "De old Foolosopher, like Hickey calls yuh, ain't yuh?" – E. O'Neill.
3. "I had a coach with a little seat in fwont with an iwon wail for the dwiver." – Ch. Dickens.
4. "The Count," explained the German officer, "expegs you, chentlemen, at eight-dirty." – C.
Holmes.
5. Wilson was a little hurt. "Listen, boy," he told him. "Ah may not be able to read eve'thin' so
good, but they ain't a thing Ah can't do if Ah set mah mind to it."
Содержание
6. She mimicked a lisp: "I don't weally know wevver I'm a good girl. The last thing he'll do
would be to be mixed with a hovvid woman."
7. "My daddy's coming tomorrow on a nairplane."
8. After a hum a beautiful Negress sings "Without a song, the dahaywould nehever end." – J.
Updike.
9. "Whereja get all these pictures?" he said. "Meetcha at the corner. Wuddaya think she's
doing out there?" – J.D. Salinger.
10. Usually she was implacable in defence of her beloved fragment of the coast and if the
summer weekenders grew brazen, – getoutofitsillyoldmoo, itsthesoddingbeach, – she would
turn the garden hose remorselessly upon them. – S. Rushdie.
11. “Beenwaitingforyou. Beenwaitingforyou. Comeonin.” I knew who it was without opening
my eyes. “They’llkillyoueverytime. They’llkilleachother. They’llkilleveryone.” – S. Rushdie.
12. “I ref-use his money altogezzer.” – Ch. Dickens.
13. He misses our father very much. He was s-l-a-i-n in North Africa. – J.D. Salinger.
14. – Oh, what’s the
diff
erence? Mother? – Muriel, I want to
know
. – J.D. Salinger.
15. “And it’s my bounden duty as a producer to resist every attack on the integrity of
American industry to the last ditch. Yes – SIR!” – S. Lewis.
16. “When Will’s ma was down here keeping house for him – she used to run in to see me,
real often!” – S. Lewis.
17. – What is that? – A ninsek, - the girl said. – L. Lee.
18. “Ford automobile … operates on a rev-rev-a-lu-shun-ary principle.” – J. Steinbeck.
Содержание
Section5.Functionalstyles
1. FS and other language varieties.
2. The general classification of FS.
3. The problem of belles-lettres style. The language of literature.
1.
One and the same message may be rendered in different ways; one and the same
phenomenon may be described differently. It depends on various factors (the situation,
relations between the speakers etc.) The difference in the expression, in the form, constitutes
style.
functional style
A
communication.
Features of all FS:
1) Specific lexical, grammatical, and phraseological means which are used exclusively for
the given style. The choice of these means depends on the aim of communication.
is a system of interrelated language means peculiar to a specific sphere of
2) The basic language material in all FS is made up of language means common to all of
them. Only a smaller part of the FS is made up of specific stylistically colored means.
3) FS are constantly interacting.
In modern linguistics the term REGISTER is very widely used instead of FS. A
register
is a
variety of the language distinguished according to its use / situationally oriented use of the
language / a social variety of the language. Every speaker has at his command a range of
registers and changes his manner of speaking almost unconsciously. Rgs are a part of an
individual’s communicative equipment.
Modern linguists also distinguish social, regional and occupational
language varieties
Regional language variation provides an answer to the question “Where are you from?” Social
language variation provides an answer to the question “What are you?” in the eyes of the
English-speaking society. Other language varieties are
idiolects
(a personal variety, speech features which allow recognizing an individual).
Modern western linguists and literary critics employ the notion of
close to the term “register” or “functional style”.
A genre
dialects, accents, sociolects
genre
in a meaning very
and
is a text or discourse type which is
recognized as such by its characteristic features of style or form. It may be a lyric poem, a
casual conversation, a doctor-patient conversation, a police report. The most common
meaning of this term is a literary type such as epic, lyric, tragedy, comedy etc. A genre often
has subgenres.
.
In current use it has a wider meaning – a certain class of text types (wider than literary genres).
A genre both unifies and stratifies the language. M.M. Bakhtin defined
a speech genre
as the
Содержание
use of language depending on the sphere of communicational setting. He divided speech
genres into
simple (primary)
complex (secondary
and
) referring literary genres to the second
group. This term is widely used to denote English For Specific Purposes.
Discourse
is a concrete manifestation of the language produced in a specific context which
involves not only linguistic elements but also the circumstances of its production: the
interlocutors, the time and place, the cultural setting.
discourse
A
is a body of texts connected with each other by the same subject, theme, and
concept, united by communicative and functional relations.
E.g. political, philosophical, perestroika, journalistic, medical.
text
A
To study language as discourse requires attention to
the speech actions they perform and to the contexts within which it is conducted
Traditionally discourse is divided into
can be regarded as a medium of discourse.
written
and
the participants of communication, to
.
spoken
. Spoken d. is less planned, more
spontaneous.
The development of technology
has led to a more complex repertoire of discourses, such as
printed discourse, telephone conversation, radio and television broadcasting, communicate by
means of an answering machine, SMS and e-mails. These types of discourse are distinguished
according to the type of DATA CARRIER / INFORMATION MEDIUM, and have their own
characteristics.
The internet communication is of particular interest as a phenomenon, which emerged about 15
years ago, has proliferated greatly and exists now as
discourses
. Like the written discourse, electronic discourse uses a graphical way of
a cross between spoken and written
transmitting information, but like spoken discourse it is characterized by transience and
informality.
Studying the features of electronic communication is a rapidly developing area of
contemporary discourse analysis.
In literature different types of discourse may be invaded into the narrative. This phenomenon is
called
ID is determined by the social and cultural peculiarities of the period. E.g. 18
interdiscoursivity
as a type of intertextuality.
th
c, the
Enlightenment – “Robinson Crusoe”, scientific discourse). It may be used for satirical
purposes.
th
The 20
c literature is characterized by the invasion of mass culture – cinematography, ads,
pop music, mass media. They influence literature not only linguistically (terms, allusions,
phraseology), but also structurally (the montage, close-ups, flashbacks). The use of
documental discourse is responsible for the so-called protocol / documental prose.
Functional Styles
1) Formal styles
Used in public speech when one addresses many.
No feedback, everything must be thought over in advance.
Elaborate, exact, rich vocabulary, synonyms and antonyms, special terms.
a) scientific,
b) business/official (commercial, legal, military, diplomatic),
c) publicist (oratory, newspaper, essays),
d) poetic.
a) Scientific Style:
Содержание
Very logical, appeals to the mind of the interlocutor. Objective, impersonal.
Terminology
Bookish words
Most of the words are abstract
Scientific phraseology, common to all branches of it (E.g. the field of inquiry)
Lexical suppletion – a stylistically neutral word of native origin is correlated with a
borrowed relative adjective: lip – labial, mind – mental, sun – solar.
The word building means are borrowed affixes (E.g. enlarge, logical, correspondence),
compound words composed of borrowings (E.g. panchronistic).
Attributive nouns (E.g. fire control antiaircraft system)
The use of connectives – compound conjunctions (E.g. moreover, inasmuch as, whereas).
Non-finites, passive voice.
b) Business Style:
It shares many features with scientific s. though it is not so elaborate and is governed by
traditions.
Very long sentences, complicated syntax.
Traditional formulas of archaic or foreign origin (E.g. in witness whereof)
Abbreviations, figures
Complete enumeration
A very developed paragraphing
No emotionally colored words.
c) Publicist (media) style:
Содержание
The Publicist style
formed in the middle of the 18 c. Its general aim is to exert a constant and
deep influence on public opinion, to cause the reader to accept the point of view expressed in
the speech, essay or article not merely through logical argumentation but through emotional
appeal as well (brain-washing function).
Oratory
sub-style is probably the most persuasive as it employs the power of human voice
and personal appeal. E.g. Political speeches, sermons, orations on solemn public occasions.
Essay
is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social or aesthetic
subject. It is a series of personal and witty comments on something.
Newspaper
style is sometimes treated as a style separate from publicistic because of its great
diversity. It includes such varieties as journalistic articles and editorials, news items, reports,
th
advertisements and announcements. In the second half of the 20
c it was also enriched by the
styles of television presentations. Let us dwell only on the most general features characteristic
of almost all sub-styles of publicistic style.
Phonetic features (in oratory)
Standard pronunciation, wide use of prosody as a means of conveying
the subtle shades of meaning, overtones and emotions. Phonetic compression.
Morphological features
1. Frequent use of non-finite verb forms, such as gerund, participle, infinitive.
2. Use of non-perfect verb forms.
3. Omission of articles, link verbs, auxiliaries, pronouns, especially in headlines and news
items.
Syntactical features
1. Frequent use of rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative in oratory speech.
2. All kinds of repetitions in oratory speech.
3. In headlines: use of impersonal sentences, elliptical constructions, interrogative sentences,
infinitive complexes and attributive groups.
4. In news items and articles: news items comprise one or two, rarely three, sentences.
5. Absence of exclamatory sentences, break-in-the narrative, other expressively charged
constructions.
Содержание
Lexical features
1. Newspaper clichés and set phrases.
2. Terminological variety: scientific, sports, political, technical, etc.
3. Abbreviations and acronyms.
4. Numerous proper names, toponyms, anthroponyms, names of enterprises, institutions,
international words, dates and figures.
5. Abstract notion words, elevated and bookish words.
6. In headlines: frequent use of pun, violated phraseology, vivid stylistic devices.
7. In oratory speech: words of elevated and bookish character, colloquial words and phrases,
frequent use of such stylistic devices as metaphor, alliteration, allusion, irony, synonyms and
antonyms etc.
8. Use of conventional forms of address and trite phrases.
Compositional features
Text arrangement is marked by precision, logic and expressive power.
Carefully selected vocabulary.
1. Variety of topics.
2. Wide use of quotations, direct speech and represented speech.
3. Use of parallel constructions throughout the text.
4. In oratory: simplicity of structural expression, clarity of message, argumentative power.
5. In headlines: use of devices to arrest attention: rhyme, pun, puzzle, high degree of
compression, graphical means.
6. In news items and articles: strict arrangement of titles and subtitles, emphasis on the
headline.
7. Careful subdivision into paragraphs, clearly defined position of the sections of an article:
the most important information is carried in the opening paragraph; often in the first sentence.
Informal Styles
IS are characteristic of personal two-way everyday communication. A dialogue is assisted by
the qualities of voice and gestures, the speaker can always see whether he is understood and
the listener can always interrupt him (constant feedback). That’s why linguistic forms are freer;
it is rich in emotional words, pronouns and generic terms.
Содержание
Informal style is subdivided into
a) literary colloquial
b) familiar colloquial
Lexical peculiarities of informal styles:
1) Ready-made lexical formulas. The difference between literary and familiar colloquial in
using them is that familiar colloquial is more definite, categorical, emotional and tends to
exaggerate, while literary colloquial is more reserved and polite.
2) A number of intensifiers that is a rather standard set of words which increase
expressiveness. Intensifiers are used according to some standards, to the norms of
combinability: terribly sorry, absolutely fabulous, dead right. severe winter, thorough
knowledge, stone deaf, dead tired, dead slow driver. Another group of intensifiers are
adverbs ever, even, just. E.g. He’s ever such a clever man.
3) The use of emotional words. In literary colloquial they are more refined (ah, dear, good
heavens); in familiar colloquial they are rude, vulgar, obscene.
E.g. Ow! For God's sake, don't kick, you idiot. (D. Parker)
Emotional words shouldn’t be confused with words naming emotions, though in some context
such words can be emotional: I looked a perfect fright yesterday.
1)The presence of empty words, time-fillers,
hesitators.
They don’t convey any special
meaning but are used for the sake of rhythm, or not to end the sentence abruptly, or to conceal
one’s embarrassment or hesitation.
Grammatical peculiarities of IS:
1. The abundance of elliptical, exclamatory, interrogative sentences.
2. Pronouns are more numerous and their use can differ from the grammatical norm: E.g. Who
is there?- It’s me /I/. I don’t know. – Me neither. /Neither do I/
LC
a)
is reserved, polite and spoken by educated people of older generation in a semi-formal
communication. Its main features are:
Abounding in conversational polite formulas
Composite verbs are widely used (to put up, to make up, to hang out, etc.)
Contracted forms (can’t, won’t)
Disjunctive questions
Generic terms (get, fix, thing)
Asyndetic coordination
Elliptical sentences
Parenthetic words
FC
b)
is used only in intimate conversation. It shares many features of literary colloquial, but it
has some specific features as well:
Vulgar, semi-vulgar words, special slang and dialectisms.
E.g. damned, lousy, crap, to be weak in the attic, to go west /=die/.
Colloquial way of calling people.
A rich use of interjections (fab! = fabulous)
The use of diminutive suffixes (mummy, daddy)
Syntactic tautology: You are crazy you are. Sam Brown he is crazy.
Double negation: Ain’t nobody’s business.
Содержание
Prof. I.R.
he includes in his classification only
Galperin
differs from many other scholars in his views on functional styles because
the written variety
of the language. In his opinion style is
the result of creative activity of the writer who consciously and deliberately selects language
means that create style. Colloquial speech, according to him, by its very nature will not lend
itself to careful selection of linguistic features and there is no stylistic intention expressed on
the part of the speaker. This viewpoint gives ground for debate. Individual speech, oral variety
included, is always marked by stylistic features that show the speaker’s educational, social and
professional background. Moreover we always assume some socially determined role and
consciously choose appropriate language means to perform it and achieve the aim of
communication.
One more debatable point in Galperin’s classification is the distinction of the
belles-lettres
style:
a) poetry;
b) emotive prose;
c) the language of the drama.
This notion comes under criticism and is not shared by other linguists because it seems rather
artificial especially in reference to modern literature. 1) Every writer has his own manner of
writing, and there are a lot of trends and genres 2) literature is the model of the world outside
us, it reflects our life thus it reflects all f. Styles. A writer may quote extracts from legal
documents, newspapers items, advertisements, slogans, headlines, etc. which do not belong to
belles-lettres style in its traditional meaning. The dialogues are very often examples of informal
styles.
As a matter of fact, in modern works of fiction we may encounter practically any functional
speech type imaginable. So most other classifications do not distinguish the language of fiction
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]