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Section3.StylisticUseofPhraseology.Intertextuality
1. Types of set-phrases.
2. Stylistic functions of phraseologisms.
3. Decomposition of phraseological units.
4. Intertextuality
a) The definition of the term.
b) Types of outer intertextuality:
Quotations
Allusions
Reminiscences, digests
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By phraseological units we mean all blocks larger than 1 word, but functioning as one.
main features
of PU: 1) the meaning of the PU is not equal to the sum of its components'
The
meaning but is a result of their interaction; 2) stability and ready-made nature.
Like the vocabulary, phraseology can be stylistically marked, thus it can possess stylistic
connotation. Some of them are elevated.
It has an emotional quality, it is emphatic and imaginative. Most of such expressions are
rhythmical, alliterated, sometimes even rhymed. They may include similes, repetitions,
synonyms and antonyms.
E.g. as like as two peas, as оld as the hills and older than the hills (simile); from beginning
to end, for love or money, more or less, sooner or later (contrast); a lame duck, a pack of lies,
arms race, to swallow the pill, in a nutshell (metaphor); by leaps and bounds, proud and
haughty (synonymy). as good as gold, as pleased as Punch, as fit as a fiddle (alliteration,
simile); now or never, to kill or cure (alliteration and contrast). More rarely there is an
intentional pun: as cross as two sticks means 'very angry'.
Phraseology includes set expressions, clichés, proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations,
epigrams. A “saying” is often used as a generic term for all these.
A saying
is a short, clever expression that usually contains advice or expresses some obvious
truth. The origin of a saying is, in most cases, unknown. Many English sayings have come
from other languages, and vice versa.
Most sayings are effective thanks to their shortness and directness. They use simple, vivid
language, often based on everyday domestic situations, making them easy to understand and
remember.
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Sayings
may be classified under a number of different terms, of which proverb is probably the
best known. Other types of saying are a maxim, a motto and some others, though the
distinction between them is often vague:
proverb
: an old and popular saying, a piece of common-sense wisdom, a truth or a moral
lesson in a concise and imaginative way ("A stitch in time saves nine" Slow and steady wins the
race"),
proverbs often form the basis of set expressions.
E. g. the last straw breaks the camel's back: :the last straw; a drowning man will clutch at a
straw::clutch at a straw; it is useless, to lock the stable door when the steed is stolen: :lock
the stable door.
maxim
: a general rule of behaviour drawn from practical experience ("Neither a borrower nor
a lender be" "Honesty is the best policy")
familiar quotations
are different from proverbs in their origin. They come from literature but
by and by they become part of the language, so that many people using them do not even
know that they are quoting, and very few could accurately name the play or passage on which
they are drawing even when they are aware of using a quotation from W. Shakespeare.
The Shakespearian quotations have become and remain extremely numerous – they have
contributed enormously to the store of the language. Very many come from
"Hamlet":
Something is rotten in the state of Denmark;
Brevity is the soul of wit;
The rest is silence;
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio …
cliché
A
is a saying, expression, idea, or element of an artistic work which has been overused
to the point of losing its original meaning or effect. It is likely to be used pejoratively.
E.g. I thank you from the bottom of my heart, rosy dreams of youth, to grow by leaps and
bounds, the patter of rain, to withstand the test of time, the acid test, ample opportunities,
astronomical figures, the arms of Morpheus, to break the ice, the irony of fate, etc.
Being constantly and mechanically repeated they have lost their original expressiveness. Clichés
are often a sign of a lazy thinker. But in the publicist style clichés are normal.
In fiction they are used for speech characterization, humorous effect, true-to life atmosphere of
legal, business or official environment.
An epigram
is a witty expression, often paradoxical or satirical and neatly or brilliantly
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phrased: In his epigram Samuel Johnson called remarriage a "triumph of hope over
experience."
An aphorism
, denoting a concise expression of a truth or principle, implies depth of content
and stylistic distinction
The Stylistic Functions of Phraseology
1.To intensify the meaning.
2.For speech characterization.
3.As titles and epigraphs.
The use of phraseology for titles helps to disclose the message and gives the key to the
understanding of the novel/story.
A specific feature in the use of phraseology is the deliberate change, decomposition of it for
different stylistic aims. Very often decomposed PUs create humorous effect, puns. The effect
of double meaning – the realization of the literal meaning of the components set against the
background of the phraseological meaning. E.g. Hannibal Lecter: I do wish we could chat
longer, but... I'm having an old friend for dinner
. Bye.
The Main Types of Decomposition of PU:
1. Substitution
of 1 word for another, often antonymous to the first. E.g. While there is
death, there is hope. (O. Wilde)
2. Amplification
– adding new elements to a PU. E.g. In reality a state of emergency
would provide General Musharraf with political breathing space. One of the saddest aspects
of the Kosovo crisis has been watching John Pilger tie himself in tautological knots.
3. Extension (prolongation). E.g. Poverty is not a sin, but a great deal worse.
4. Cumulation
(contamination). E.g. The euro has hit people’s wallets, not their hearts.
(to heat sb’s pocket+to hit sb’s heart). The Great Wall Street of China.
5. Reduction
Decomposed PU can provide basis for creating
(a part of a PU is used). E.g. When in Rome…
paradoxes
– statements which though appear
to be self-contradictory nevertheless involve truth or at least an element of it. E.g. I must be
cruel to be kind (Shakespeare) All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others
(Orwell)
O. Wilde is famous as a brilliant master of paradox. Sometimes he is called Prince Paradox.
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E.g. "A man can be happy with any woman, so long as he does not love her."
"The proper basis for a marriage is mutual misunderstanding."
"Anyone can sympathize with the sufferings of a friend; it requires a very fine nature to
sympathize with a friends' success."
"Punctuality is the thief of time."
"The only thing worse in the world than being talked about is not being talked about."
"I have very simple tastes; I am always satisfied with the very best."
Intertextuality
Any literary text is a product of the author’s
creative activity. But the elements of the
complicated textual structure may have different, even conflicting relations with the author’s
conscience. The author’s speech and the author’s words are mixed with “alien
words” (M.M. Bakhtin). A text may be characterized by the polyphony – it can be conceived
as a chorus of many different voices, that belong to the author or to the characters, and also
they may originate from some other text.
The interconnections of various texts may have different bases. It can result from conscious
borrowings or copying other texts, it can also result from subconscious acquiring some literary
or linguistic clichés, traditions, plots etc.
The term that denotes the relations of some text with all other texts, which can be completely
or partially included into it is
th
of the 20
c. by Yu. Kristeva and R. Bart. They understood IT as a universal subconscious
intertextuality (IT)
. The term was introduced in the second half
process, when any new text is created as a mosaic picture consisting of elements from
previous texts.
The alien element that is included into a text is called
are universal or peculiar to a certain culture are called
intext
. The major sources of intexts that
precedent texts (
Yu.Karaulov
).
E.g.
texts of Hellenistic and Roman culture, the Bible, folklore, W. Shakespeare etc.
IT is the problem that is extensively studied nowadays. The results of fundamental researches
can be found in the works of Russian – Yu.M. Lotman, I.V. Arnold – and Western scholars –
J. Jennette, U. Eco etc.
IT
exists in the form of quotations, allusions, digests and some others.
Quotation
a)
: I suppose I felt failed and fallen. Like Lucifer: “I will exalt my throne above
the stars of God…” and set it among the stars of Hollywood.(J. Fowles)
Allusion
b)
is a stylistic device, it is a usage of some name (of a person, a place, a historical
event) that directly or indirectly points at a historical fact or cultural phenomenon and evokes
certain associations. Allusions are largely instrumental in creating implications, they fulfill
Содержание
aesthetic, expressive and cognitive functions. Allusions help the author in the characterdrawing, creating humorous or sarcastic effect.
Depending on the context, one and the same allusion can evoke different associations (E.g.
Eden – garden, purity, snake, sin, loss etc.) The effect of the allusion is dependent on the
background of the reader.
Types of allusions:
1. Anthroponyms and zoonyms (Adam and Eve, Don Quixote, Crusoe, Apollo,
Narcissus, Mother Theresa, Sphinx, Hachiko). Antonomasia.
2. Toponyms: Pile the bodies high at Austerlitz and Waterloo.
Shovel them under and let me work –
I am the grass; I cover all. (C. Sandburgh “The Grass”)
3. Names of art works: “Melancholy” in “The Light that Failed” by Kipling
4. Facts, events, “realia”. (Oscar allusion in Shrek 2)
5. Compositional allusions. (Ulisses by Joice, Centaur by Updyke, Pretty Woman movie)
Digests
c)
are complex reminiscences of some general cultural or historical phenomena
(theater, war etc.)
Practice
Comment on the following cases of stylistic use of phraseology:
1) CANNIBAL COOK: Shall I stew both those cooks we captured from the steamer?
CANNIBAL KING: No, one is enough. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
2) Little Jon was born with a silver spoon in his mouth which was rather curly and large. –
J. Galsworthy.
3) Another person who makes both ends meet is the infant who sucks his toes. – Y. Esar.
4) The young lady who burst into tears has been put together again. – Ch. Dickens.
6) His grey face was so long that he could wind it twice round his neck. – R. Chandler.
7) She shot at me with two blue pellets which served her as eyes. –R. Chandler.
8) I got enough information out of him to make me smell a pretty powerful rat. – M. Stewart.
9) He intended to take an opportunity this afternoon of speaking to Irene. A word in time saved
nine. – J. Galsworthy.
11) Women who wear $200.00 perfume obviously are known to have no common scents.
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12) Always forgive your enemies, but never forget their names.
13) Always forgive your enemies; nothing annoys them so much.
14) Early to rise and early to bed makes a male healthy and wealthy and dead. –Thurber.
15) I think, therefore IBM. – IBM advert.
16) Join the Army, see the world, meet interesting people – and kill them. ~Pacifist Badge,
1978.
Comment on the meaning and stylistic function of the following examples of
intertextuality. Define the type of intertextuality:
1. “Whitney Houston, we have a problem” (Jeannette Walls April 5, 2006 The Forbes, an
article headline).
2. “Most phones are from Mars, this one is from Venus” (an advertising slogan) “Are iPhones
from Mars, BlackBerrys from Venus?” (a headline).
3. Ads of "Recycling Centre " (Finland): " Just recycle it!", "Recycling people", "United
Colours of Recycling", "Come to Recycling Country".
4. “Mumbai, India: The REAL City that Never Sleeps”. Welcome to the New York of India –
a.k.a. Mumbai! (Ads for tourists).
5. “In sickness and in health . . . but mainly sickness” (Steve Bird June 3, 2006 The Times, an
article headline).
6. The John-Bull-like lady over there, he learned from the aunt, was “Mrs. Tomkins, the
kindest old soul”… ( J. Fowles “The French Lieutenant's Woman”).
7. Dear Diary,
Today was productive. I designed an armored car and two flying machines and then I worked
on my painting “La Gioconda” and then I sculpted an entire horse out of bronze and then I
smiled and thought about how much better I am than that upstart Michelangelo.
Hugs & kisses, Leo.
Section4.Phoneticandgraphicalexpressivemeans
Содержание
Phonetic expressive means
serve to provoke a certain acoustic effect; they give prominence
to the utterance and arouse emotions in the reader. The phonemic structure of the word proves
to be important for the creation of expressive and emotive connotations. The acoustic form of
the words foregrounds them, inevitably emphasizing their meaning too.
Traditionally, phonetic devices are divided into
versification
).
sound instrumenting
and
prosody
(rules of
Instrumenting:
Onomatopoeia
1)
– a combination of speech sounds which imitate the sounds of nature,
man, inanimate objects, such as "hiss", "bowwow", "murmur", "bump", "grumble", "sizzle"
and many more.
A message, containing an onomatopoeic word is not limited to transmitting the logical
information only, but also supplies the vivid portrayal of the situation described.
Indirect onomatopoeia:
E.g. Summer-summer-summer! The soundless footsteps on the grass!(Galsworthy)
The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
Into the silent sea (Coleridge)
Euphony
2)
– the coordination between the meaning and the sound to produce an artistic
effect, when the sound imagery corresponds to the general mood of the utterance. It is based
on the prevalence of vowels (esp. diphthongs and long vowels), on sonorous sounds, on
voiced consonants. Thus we see that not only separate sounds, but classes of sounds may be
repeated producing a certain stylistic effect. Euphony is a sense of ease and comfort in
pronouncing or hearing. E.g. ...silken sad uncertain
rustling of each purple curtain...
3) The main patterns of
sound repetition
(all of them can produce an onomatopoeic or
euphonic effect, or both):
Alliteration –
a)
recurrence of the initial consonant in two or more words in close
succession. It's a typically English feature because ancient English poetry was based more on
alliteration than on rhyme (e.g. Beowulf). We find a vestige of this once all-embracing literary
device in proverbs and sayings that came down to us. E. g. Now or never, Last but not least,
As good as gold.
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With time its function broadened into prose and other types of texts. It became very popular in
titles, headlines and slogans, in names of fictional characters and in pseudonyms:
E. g. Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility (J. Austin), Posthumous papers of the
Pickwick Club (Ch. Dickens) , the Last Leaf (O. Henry); Leacock’s collections of stories;
America Alone, Demography vs. delusion (M. Steyn); personality plus power produces
positive people. Workers of the world, unite! Work or wages!.
Assonance
b)
is the recurrence of stressed vowels. E.g. ...Tell this soul with sorrow
laden, if within the distant Aiden; I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name
Lenore. (E. Poe).
Consonance
c)
is the recurrence of the consonant in two or more words in close
succession. The term is most commonly used, though, for a special case of such repetition in
which the words are identical except for the stressed vowel sound (group / grope, middle /
muddle, wonder / wander); this device, combining alliteration and terminal consonance, is
sometimes known more precisely as ‘rich consonance,’ and is frequently used in modern
poetry at the ends of verse lines as an alternative to full rhyme (halfrhyme).E.g. "And all is
seared with trade; bleared smeared with toil; And wears man's smudge and shares man's smell:
the soil." (G. Hopkins).
Paronomasia
d)
is co-occurrence of paronyms, using words similar in sound but
different in meaning. Phonetic similarity and positional proximity makes the reader search for
semantic connection of the paronyms which results in imagery.
E. g. And the raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting (E. Poe)
Mixing paronyms results in pun, create humorous effect.
E.g. Good punctuation means not to be late.
Versification
Prosody:
Broad understanding in modern linguistics: general suprasegmental characteristics of
speech – rhythm, tonality, length, force, tempo. Not only in poetry!
Rhythm
1.
is a deliberate arrangement of speech into regularly repeating units. It's a
regular recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables that can make a poetic text. Prose can
be rhythmically arranged too (parallelism, repetition, asynteton, polysyndeton). In verse various
combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables determine the
meter
– a form of periodicity
in verse.
The minimal group of syllables with one stressed and some unstressed is a
of feet in a line E.g. tetrameter, pentameter)
a) Trochee
‘–
foot
(the number
Would you ask me whence these stories
Whence these legends and traditions (Longfellow)
Men of England, wherefore plough
For the lords who lay ye low?
Wherefore weave with toil and care
The rich robes your tyrants wear? (Shelley)
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b) Iambus
–‘
There went three kings into the east,
Three kings both great and high,
And they had sworn a solemn oath:
John Barleycorn should die (Burns)
c) Dactyl
‘–
Cannon to right of them, cannon to left of them.
Take her up tenderly,
Lift her with care,
Fashion'd so slenderly
Young and so fair. (Hood)
d) Amphibrach
–‘
'Twas the night before Christmas
When all through the house
Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;
The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,
In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;
The children were nestled all snug in their beds,
While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads (Browning)
e) Anapaest - -‘
Would you ask what the birds say? The sparrow, the dove
Even strictly classical meters admit of certain variations in stress.
any regularity.
Free verse
does not follow
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Rhyme
2)
is another feature that distinguishes verse from prose and consists in the acoustic
coincidence of stressed syllables at the end of verse lines.
Types of rhyme:
a) male / masculine, single. Lines end with a stressed syllable dreams-streams, handunderstand, obey-away.
b) female / feminine/ double. End with unstressed syllables duty-beauty, berry-merry
c) triple. Stressed plus two unstressed tenderly-slenderly, battery-flattery.
According to the position of the rhyming lines:
a) Adjacent aabb
b) Crossing abab
c) Ring abba
Blank verse
does not contain any rhyme
Graphical expressive means
To create additional information in a prose discourse sound-instrumenting is seldom used. In
contemporary advertising, mass media and, above all, imaginative prose sound is foregrounded
mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation. This intentional violation of
the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation
is called
graphon
.
Graphons, indicating irregularities or carelessness of pronunciation were occasionally
th
introduced into English novels and journalism as early as the beginning of the 18
century and
since then have acquired an ever growing frequency of usage, popularity among writers,
journalists and advertisers.
Graphon proved to be an extremely concise but effective means of supplying information
about the speaker's origin (foreign accent, dialect), social and educational background
(uneducated speech, careless colloquial speech, baby talk), physical or emotional condition
(lisping, stammer, intoxication, excitement, fear), etc.
So, when the famous Thackeray's character – butler Yellowplush – impresses his listeners with
the learned words pronouncing them as "sellybrated" (celebrated),
"bennyviolent" (benevolent), "illygitmit" (illegitimate), "jewinile" (juvenile), or when the no less
famous S. Lewis' Mr. Babbitt uses "peerading" (parading), "Eytalians" (Italians),
"peepul" (people) - the reader obtains not only the vivid image and the social, cultural,
educational characteristics of the personages, but also the authors’ sarcastic attitude to them.
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