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Using these principles, Newton removed the idea that objects followed paths
determined by natural shapes (such as Kepler’s idea that planets moved naturally in
ellipses), and instead demonstrated that not only regularly observed paths, but all the
future motions of any body could be deduced mathematically based on knowledge of
their existing motion, their mass, and the forces acting upon them. However,
observed celestial motions did not precisely conform to a Newtonian treatment, and
Newton, who was also deeply interested in theology, imagined that God intervened to
ensure the continued stability of the solar system.
Figure 5 - Gottfried Leibniz, (1646-1716)
Newton’s principles (but not his mathematical treatments) proved
controversial with Continental philosophers, who found his lack of metaphysical
explanation for movement and gravitation philosophically unacceptable. Beginning
around 1700, a bitter rift opened between the Continental and British philosophical
traditions, which were stoked by heated, ongoing, and viciously personal disputes
between the followers of Newton and Leibniz concerning priority over the analytical
techniques of calculus, which each had developed independently. Initially, the
Cartesian and Leibnizian traditions prevailed on the Continent (leading to the
dominance of the Leibnizian calculus notation everywhere except Britain). Newton
himself remained privately disturbed at the lack of a philosophical understanding of
gravitation, while insisting in his writings that none was necessary to infer its reality.
As the 18th century progressed, Continental natural philosophers increasingly
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accepted the Newtonians’ willingness to forgo ontological metaphysical explanations
for mathematically described motions [10,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics].
1.7.2 Find key sentences in the text and retell it. You may use Internet to
get supplementary information.
1.8 Revision texts 1.4 - 1.7
1.8.1 Match words and word-combinations with their translation:
refraction бинокулярное зрение
immediate force эмпирический метод
scientific inquiry (investigation) решение, трактовка
corpuscular motion доказательство
universe гипотетический, предположительный
positivist approach естественная (присущая) форма
justifiable экспериментальная физика
solar system богословие
intromission theory вихревое движение
metaphysical explanation сила, действующая непосредственно
empirical procedure геометрическая оптика
to deduce mathematically математическая астрономия
Tuscan mathematician мир, вселенная, космос
natural shape отражение
to discard склонность к утверждениям (как
правило, неподтвержденным)
geometrical optics преломление, рефракция
natural philosopher позитивистский подход
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theology теория эмиссии
proof корпускулярное движение
mathematical astronomy теория интромиссии (впуска,
вхождения)
vortex motion научное исследование, изучение
to obey метафизическое объяснение
binocular vision состоятельный
treatment философская структура, система
взглядов
experimental physics этрусский математик (математик-
тосканец)
conjectural отказываться (от прежних взглядов)
reflection выводить математически
philosophical framework натурфилософ, естествоиспытатель
confirmation bias солнечная система
emission theory подчиняться
1.8.2 Find the sentences with these words and word-combinations in texts
1.4 – 1.7 and translate them.
1.8.3 Prepare the words and word-combinations for a dictation.
1.8.4 Translate the following texts into English. You may use vocabulary
notes below them.
Ибн ал-Хайсам. Пытаясь доказать пятый постулат Евклида, хоть и
ошибочно, Ибн ал-Хайсам впервые рассмотрел четырёхугольник, у которого
три внутренних угла — прямые. Он сформулировал три возможных варианта
для четвёртого угла: острый, прямой, тупой. Обсуждение этих трёх гипотез
многократно возникало в более поздних исследованиях.
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Ибн ал-Хайсаму принадлежит большое количество сочинений,
повлиявших на развитие математической науки, и фундаментальный труд по
оптике в 7 томах.
В области физиологической оптики он дал описание строения глаза и
выдвинул собственную теорию, согласно которой зрительный образ получается
при помощи лучей, которые испускаются видимыми телами и попадают в глаз.
Он же дал правильное представление бинокулярного зрения. Наконец, он
высказал предположение о конечности скорости света.
Ибн ал-Хайсаму принадлежит также ряд сочинений по астрономии [8,
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/Ibn_al_Haytham].
Vocabulary notes:
пятый постулат Евклида – Euclidean fifth postulate;
внутренний угол - concluded angle;
прямой угол - right angle;
острый угол - sharp angle;
тупой угол - obtuse angle;
бинокулярное зрение - binocular vision.
Декарт. Физические исследования Декарта относятся главным образом
к механике, оптике и строению Вселенной.
Декарт ввёл понятие “силы” (меры) движения (количества движения),
подразумевая под ним произведение “величины” тела (массы) на абсолютное
значение его скорости. Французский ученый сформулировал также закон
сохранения движения (количества движения), однако не учитывал, что
количество движения является векторной величиной.
Он исследовал законы удара, впервые чётко сформулировал закон
инерции (1644).
Декарт первый математически вывел закон преломления света на
границе двух различных сред. Точная формулировка этого закона позволила
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усовершенствовать оптические приборы, которые тогда стали играть огромную
роль в астрономии и навигации (а вскоре и в микроскопии).
Философия Декарта была дуалистической.
Главным вкладом Декарта в философию стало классическое построение
философии рационализма как универсального метода познания.
Исходной точкой рассуждений Декарта является “сомнение во всём” [8,
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/Rene_Descartes].
Vocabulary notes:
преломление света – light refraction;
различные среды – different media;
дуалистический – dualistic;
рационализм - rationalism.
1.9 Text Rational Mechanics in the 18th Century
1.9.1 Read the text, translate it and name the main steps of the mechanics
development in the 18th century.
Figure 6 - Leonhard Euler, (1707-1783)
The mathematical analytical traditions established by Newton and Leibniz
flourished during the 18th century as more mathematicians learned calculus and
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elaborated upon its initial formulation. The application of mathematical analysis to
problems of motion was known as rational mechanics, or mixed mathematics (and
was later termed classical mechanics). This work primarily revolved around celestial
mechanics, although other applications were also developed, such as the Swiss
mathematician Daniel Bernoulli’s treatment of fluid dynamics, which he introduced
in his 1738 work Hydrodynamica.
Rational mechanics dealt primarily with the development of elaborate
mathematical treatments of observed motions, using Newtonian principles as a basis,
and emphasized improving the tractability of complex calculations and developing of
legitimate means of analytical approximation. A representative contemporary
textbook was published by Johann Baptiste Horvath. By the end of the century
analytical treatments were rigorous enough to verify the stability of the solar system
solely on the basis of Newton’s laws without reference to divine intervention—even
as deterministic treatments of systems as simple as the three body problem in
gravitation remained intractable.
British work, carried on by mathematicians such as Brook Taylor and Colin
Maclaurin, fell behind Continental developments as the century progressed.
Meanwhile, work flourished at scientific academies on the Continent, led by such
mathematicians as Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, PierreSimon Laplace, and Adrien-Marie Legendre. At the end of the century, the members
of the French Academy of Sciences had attained clear dominance in the field [10,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics].
1.10 Text Physical Experimentation in the 18th and early 19th Centuries
1.10.1 Read the text, translate it and choose the best ending to the
sentences:
a) Newton’s book Opticks…
showed him to be a prominent experimenter;
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led to new important discoveries;
b) In the 18th century the experiments in different feilds of science…
were not clearly understood;
were rather mixed to each other;
c) Soon the experimentation tradition…
led to the development of new kinds of research laboratories;
caused some new types of apparatus and instruments to appear;
d) In the early years of the 19th century analytical methods of rational
mechanics began to be applied to experimental phenomena…
mostly due to Joseph Fourier;
thanks to Thomas Young and Michael Faraday.
At the same time, the experimental tradition established by Galileo and his
followers persisted. The Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences were
major centers for the performance and reporting of experimental work, and Newton
was himself an influential experimenter, particularly in the field of optics, where he
was recognized for his prism experiments dividing white light into its constituent
spectrum of colors, as published in his 1704 book Opticks (which also advocated a
particulate interpretation of light). Experiments in mechanics, optics, magnetism,
static electricity, chemistry, and physiology were not clearly distinguished from each
other during the 18th century, but significant differences in explanatory schemes and,
thus, experiment design were emerging. Chemical experimenters, for instance, defied
attempts to enforce a scheme of abstract Newtonian forces onto chemical affiliations,
and instead focused on the isolation and classification of chemical substances and
reactions.
Nevertheless, the separate fields remained tied together, most clearly through
the theories of weightless “imponderable fluids", such as heat (“caloric”), electricity,
and phlogiston (which was rapidly overthrown as a concept following Lavoisier’s
identification of oxygen gas late in the century). Assuming that these concepts were
real fluids, their flow could be traced through a mechanical apparatus or chemical
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reactions. This tradition of experimentation led to the development of new kinds of
experimental apparatus, such as the Leyden Jar and the Voltaic Pile; and new kinds of
measuring instruments, such as the calorimeter, and improved versions of old ones,
such as the thermometer. Experiments also produced new concepts, such as the
University of Glasgow experimenter Joseph Black’s notion of latent heat and
Philadelphia intellectual Benjamin Franklin’s characterization of electrical fluid as
flowing between places of excess and deficit (a concept later reinterpreted in terms of
positive and negative charges).
While it was recognized early in the 18th century that finding absolute
theories of electrostatic and magnetic force akin to Newton’s principles of motion
would be an important achievement, none were forthcoming.
This impossibility only slowly disappeared as experimental practice became
more widespread and more refined in the early years of the 19th century in places
such as the newly-established Royal Institution in London, where John Dalton argued
for an atomistic interpretation of chemistry, Thomas Young argued for the
interpretation of light as a wave, and Michael Faraday established the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction.
Figure 6 - Michael Faraday (1791-1867) delivering the 1856
Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution
Meanwhile, the analytical methods of rational mechanics began to be applied
to experimental phenomena, most influentially with the French mathematician Joseph
Fourier’s analytical treatment of the flow of heat, as published in 1822 [10,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics].
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1.11 Text Thermodynamics, Statistical Mechanics, and Electromagnetic
Theory
1.11.1 Read the text, translate it and find one extra step in the list of main
steps below the text.
The establishment of a mathematical physics of energy between the 1850s
and the 1870s expanded substantially on the physics of prior eras and challenged
traditional ideas about how the physical world worked. While Pierre-Simon Laplace’s
work on celestial mechanics solidified a deterministically mechanistic view of objects
obeying fundamental and totally reversible laws, the study of energy and particularly
the flow of heat, threw this view of the universe into question.
Figure 7 - William Thomson (1824-1907),
later Lord Kelvin
Drawing upon the engineering theory of Lazare and Sadi Carnot, and Émile
Clapeyron; the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of
mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms of work; and his own Cambridge
mathematical tripos training in mathematical analysis; the Glasgow physicist William
Thomson and his circle of associates established a new mathematical physics relating
to the exchange of different forms of energy and energy overall conservation (what is
still accepted as the “first law of thermodynamics”). Their work was soon allied with
the theories of similar but less-known work by the German physician Julius Robert
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von Mayer and physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz on the
conservation of forces.
Figure 8 - Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906)
Taking his mathematical cues from the heat flow work of Joseph Fourier (and
his own religious and geological convictions), Thomson believed that the dissipation
of energy with time (what is accepted as the “second law of thermodynamics”)
represented a fundamental principle of physics, which was expounded in Thomson
and Peter Guthrie Tait’s influential work Treatise on Natural Philosophy. However,
other interpretations of what Thomson called thermodynamics were established
through the work of the German physicist Rudolf Clausius. His statistical mechanics,
which was elaborated upon by Ludwig Boltzmann and the British physicist James
Clerk Maxwell, held that energy (including heat) was a measure of the speed of
particles. Interrelating the statistical likelihood of certain states of organization of
these particles with the energy of those states, Clausius reinterpreted the dissipation
of energy to be the statistical tendency of molecular configurations to pass toward
increasingly likely, increasingly disorganized states (coining the term “entropy” to
describe the disorganization of a state). The statistical versus absolute interpretations
of the second law of thermodynamics set up a dispute that would last for several
decades (producing arguments such as “Maxwell's demon”), and that would not be
held to be definitively resolved until the behavior of atoms was firmly established in
the early 20th century.
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