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Файл:Self-management and self-development techniques. Training manual for students in the field of training 08.04.01 Construction
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1. Goal-setting skills: formulated affirmatively and positively; relates personally to the individual
and is under his or her control; has an appropriate scale of generalisations; is ecological (no negative
side-effects); is verifiable in sensory experience; and has access to resource states. This stage is well
developed by psychologists. It is quite possible to master it.
2. Betting on one’s own knowledge and skills rather than on chance. This stage is left to the individual. It is his decision.
3. Learning to achieve the goal by one’s own means. If the previous stage is successful, the person can count on professional psychological help.
4. To be able to see a concrete result behind every decision. A method that allows this is called visualisation. There are techniques that allow one to master this skill.
5. Willingness to take responsibility for one’s decisions.
6. A tendency to take moderate risks.
T
he last two stages fall entirely on the shoulders of the individual. Thus, the individual takes
care of three out of the six steps. In the remaining three, he/she can count on professional help
and support.
Incorrect life attitude (6/2).
You have probably heard the words “life stance” many times. Politicians and sociologists talk
about it. In this case, we are talking about the psychological nature of this concept.
People’s lives are different, and there are a great many reasons for that, and it’s hard to understand them all. One of them is life attitude. It is an approach to life, to oneself and to others that determines what we expect from life. And we get what we want.
The first thing people sense in each other when communicating is their attitude.
If you feel that people are not friendly to you, then you will experience anxiety, insecurity, fear,
which is exactly what people prefer to shun, not wanting to get infected with these negative emotions.
An important feature of emotions is their ability to transfer from one person to another. That is why
we prefer to avoid people with negative emotions.
One’s attitude towards oneself, others and life in general is a life attitude. Four options are possible:
I. A position of non-neglect.
A person lives by the formula “all is well”: “I am good and others are good”. The person is willing to accept the world without ignoring it. This person lives with open eyes, understanding the complexity and contradictory nature of our world. This is the attitude of a winner, a successful person.
The stance brings satisfaction, promotes cooperation and generates joy.
II. A stance of ignoring the other.
A person lives by the formula “I am good and others are bad”. The person does not like the other(s), and his/her first emotional reaction is a desire to ignore him/her, as if to say: “I wish my eyes
had not seen you”.
Ignoring the other is difficult, people don’t like to be ignored, and it’s not easy to get away from
them that way. The next reaction is irritation. One thing may annoy you at first, then another. If
the person does not want to “mend his ways”, i.e. do what you think is right, then sooner or later anger will f lare up. This energetically powerful emotional reaction is like a bolt of lightning. You may
also vent your anger on someone you love out of despair that he is not getting better. The next stage
is hatred. This is a silent and very dangerous emotional state, as it gradually destroys the brain, leaving no room for any other emotion.
III. The position of ignoring oneself.
A person lives by the formula “the others are good; I am the only bad one”. A person looks around
and decides that everyone is doing well, “all people are like people, only I am...”, they are ready
to envy everyone, turning away and not wanting to look at themselves.
If a pe rson star ts ignoring himself, it means he has stopped trust ing himself, he ca n not r ely on himself, and this generates insecurity. Where insecurity has appeared, fear will appear, which literally
“corners the person” and leads to despair. As an emotional state, despair is a dangerous reaction, because it has a lot of energy, which one can unleash on oneself or on others.
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IV. The attitude of ignoring joy.
The person lives according to the formula: “everything is bad”. This person lives hard and sadly.
Ignoring joy gives rise to sadness, a quiet f leeting emotional state that any person experiences more than once in their life. But if sadness stays with a person for a long time, it turns into sorrow. When it is set inside a person, sorrow makes life gray-black and removes any colours from it.
The next step is depression, from the clutches of which it is difficult to escape on one’s own. Your selfesteem is low, you have no self- confidence and everything has no sense and perspective. One has to
go to doctors.
Theoretically, the person repeatedly passes from one position to another, showing flexibility
and adequacy of the situation. In reality, a person develops a position in which he or she stays for most
of his/her life.
Lack of self- awareness and self- management (7/1).
This limitation invariably comes first in any study. For more than three thousand years we have repeated the dictum of the ancients: “Know thyself, and thou shalt know the whole world”, but we have
never come close to putting it into practice. Naturally, the question arises as to what exactly we should
know about ourselves and how to do it. Where do we start? Again, the unity of opinion is your health.
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, not just the absence of disease
or physical defects. People sometimes forget that they are not just a physical body. In psychological
lite rature, one can find descriptions of the requirements for mental, spiritual, mental health.
Ignorance of oneself leads to a number of negative consequences, in particular:
– a person works hard, but does not achieve good results because they work inefficiently and do
not use their strengths;
– a person does not feel their energy and often feels weak because they do not have access to their
own resources;
– a self- judgment of the person is low, unable to accept setbacks;
– a person seeks universal approval, wants constant praise or sympathy.
The above are only a small part of the consequences of not knowing oneself. Let’s add two other
skills that are crucial to self- management.
First, time management. This skill implies the ability to control your busyness and priorities your
tasks and daily to-do list.
Second, stress management. Without this skill it is difficult to cope with overwork and its consequence, burnout. Those who have good stress management skills see work as a nexus of personal initiatives with larger goals.
When we talk about personality, we rarely think about the meaning of the word. It is in our active vocabulary and we seem to be able to use it appropriately in speech. But when we ask ourselves
about the meaning of a word, it is not easy to define, and we do it in our own way. The same is true
in the scientific community.
The notion of personality. The phenomenon of personality has been studied by philosophers,
psychologists, sociologists, teachers and representatives of other sciences. There are hundreds of definitions in psychology alone. Different views on the problem of personality give rise to a variety of interpretations, and hence theories. The theories of personality define and reveal the structural elements
of personality and suggest a way of its formation and development.
Thus, Freud repeatedly returned to his description of personality, defining it as the dynamic interaction of the id, ego and superego. They are so intertwined that it is virtually impossible to untangle them, and a person’s behaviour is a product of their interaction. Freud ascribes a major role in this
tangled history to the unconscious (id component), believing that the early years of life determine personality development.
G. Jung developed Freud’s theory, made some corrections in it and described such personality
types as extroverts and introverts.
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According to W. James, personality emerges as an interaction of instinctive and habitual facets
of consciousness as well as personal volitional aspects. He distinguished between physical, social
and spiritual personality. Interestingly, in his model, personality is not limited to the confines of the body.
The clothes we wear, the surroundings we create around us are also our personality.
The theories of personality are in many ways contradictory and controversial. It is quite fascinating and useful to study them, giving us grounds to look at the problem of personality through
the eyes of different scientists. Some understand the personality as a set of social relations; others understand it as a set of internal conditions through which all external influences are refracted, as a receptacle of consciousness.
In the modern scientific community, there are three approaches to the understanding and origin of personality, with different theories developing within each. The biogenetic approach considers biological processes as the basis of personality development; the socio-genetic approach explains
the peculiarities of personality by the peculiarities of society; the psychogenetic approach recognises
the individual characteristics of a person as the basis of development.
Thus, we can say that personality reveals the social nature of man. This is a set of biological, social components, which are individually combined and expressed in different people, which is manifested in activity, behaviour.
Psychology not only explains the understanding of personality, its structure, development, but also
classifies its different types, identifies characteristics, defines indicators of the norm. The applied significance of personality psychology lies in the development of methods to help people — psychotherapeutic methods, with the aim of preserving health.
Personality structure. The personality struct ure is a holistic model, a system of qualit ies and properties that characterise the psychological features of a person. Let us take into account the biological,
social component of the personality and its individuality and obtain a complex structure.
The biological level, the biological component of the personality, as a rule, is represented by different authors by sex, age, peculiarities of the nervous system, temperament.
The features of the nervous system in this case refers to different variations of the course
of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition. Temperament is a dynamic feature of the nervous system, manifested in activity and behaviour.
The biosocial level. The biological substructure affects the individual characteristics of human mental processes. These are the individual manifestations of memory, perception, sensation,
thinking, various abilities. Congenital factors are specific to the way we were built, but do not prevent
us from developing these qualities. They are trained and improved.
Awareness, perception, memory, thinking, imagination constitute the cognitive sphere of the intellect. These processes enable one to reflect and store information about the world around us, to operate with this information, and even to create new images based on it.
Abilities create the conditions for the successful performance of activities.
The socio-biological level. The next level is individual social experience, which includes the knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired by the individual.
K n owledge, s k il ls an d ha bit s in clude a theoret ica l u n d e r st an d in g of the wo r ld and oneself, and the a b i l ity to use this knowledge in practice, up to and including the automatic performance of actions.
Habits, as repetitive actions formed gradually to meet a need or under compulsion, are ingrained
in stereotypical forms of behaviour. The need, and the initial motive associated with it, gives way
to a need for the action itself. We know very well that there are useful and harmful habits. Some
are related to the formation of positive personality traits, others to the formation of negative ones. This
is an aspect of education or self- education.
The social level. The biological is almost absent from this level. It contains beliefs, worldviews, personal meanings, interests. All that is formed and develops in the process of life (according to K.K. Platonov).
Belief can be understood as a stable, fundamental system of views that guides our behaviour. It
is formed on the basis of an overriding picture of the world, reinforced by consciously chosen fragments of experience.
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A worldview is, in effect, a picture of the world. We think of it as reality. Personal meanings arise
as a reflection of that reality. What is the meaning of life? A religious worldview will tell us the answer: “To get closer to God”. The natural-philosophical worldview also tells us the answer: “To find
harmony ”.
Interests motivate activity. They are selective and emotionally coloured.
A person’s sense of purpose guides us on the path of life, sets the dominant direction, and determines the main road.
Such rich personal content can provide any person with a happy life. It is obvious that biological
elements, in case of some failure, e.g. illness, can be compensated by elements of a higher, social level. Human being is capable to do that. But he does not always use it.
Self-concept and self- esteem. Much in one’s perception of the world, interaction with it, with
other people and in one’s perception of oneself depends on one’s attitude towards everything. First
and foremost, to oneself. This attitude towards oneself is built up by a fairly stable system of perceptions. This is a principle, the centre of organisation of perception and thinking, traits of character, abilities, will, emotions, attitudes, values, and much more, into a single whole. This centre
is the nucleus of human personality, and is referred to by different psychological theories in different ways. For example, “selfhood” or “self- awareness”. In foreign psychology, the most common term is “self- concept”.
“Self-concept” includes three components: cognitive, emotional and evaluative, behavioural.
The cognitive component is an image of one’s qualities, abilities, appearance, social significance,
character and so on. This is what we know about ourselves.
In C. Rogers’ theory of personality, “self- concept” includes not only our perception of who we are,
but also how we think we should be and would like to be. In this regard, psychology distinguishes two
forms of “self- concept” as a cognitive component, the real and the ideal.
The notion of a real “self- concept” does not at all imply that the concept is realistic, what matters
is the individual’s conception of himself or herself, of “what I am”.
“The ideal self” is a person’s idea of what they want: “What I would like to be”. The “I-ideal” reflects the attributes a person would like to have.
The emotional-evaluation component is a person’s experience of his or her perceptions of self,
self- esteem, self- respect or self- destruction, self- love or love for others, and so on. It is how we feel
about ourselves.
The degree of adequacy of the self- concept is related to the adequacy of a person’s self- esteem.
A person’s self- esteem is a person’s assessment of themselves, their capabilities, qualities and place
among others.
A person’s self- esteem affects relations with other people, his/her creativity, demanding attitude
towards, attitude towards successes and failures, thus self- esteem affects the efficiency of a person’s
activity and his/her further development.
The starting point of the self- evaluation report is social interaction: relations with other people
in the process of activity and communication. By getting to know the qualities of the other person,
the individual receives the necessary information that allows him or her to work out his or her own
assessment. This self- esteem is then continuously compared to what a person sees in other people.
A person, as a rule, is guided by a reference group when strengthening his or her self- assessment.
A reference group is a real or imagined social community with which an individual associates
himself or herself as a benchmark and whose norms, opinions, values, and assessments guide his or
her behaviour and self- esteem.
A person’s self- esteem may be both adequate (a person evaluates himself/herself correctly) and inadequate (over- or under-estimation), which affects pretensions level.
A person’s pretensions level is t he degree of di f fic u lt y of the go a l s he or she is st riv i n g for and t h e attainment of which human being finds attractive and possible.
A person’s pretensions level are inf luenced both by the dynamics of success and failure in a particular activity and by the dynamics of success and failure throughout life. A person’s level of attain-
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ment can be adequate: human being chooses goals that correspond to his/her abilities, skills and possibilities, or inadequate: overstated or understated.
Self-esteem is a defining component of the self- concept, and the ability to build an adequate selfconcept in a person is based on the criticality of consciousness. We will talk about that later.
The behavioural component is actions a person takes, on the basis of his/her self- concept, social
attitudes concerning him/herself and others. This is what we do, the way we perform different human activities. For example, working, learning and socialising.
“The self- concept” is a stable self- image, but it is also dynamic and evolving. Reflection, through
self- observation and introspection, promotes its development. To do this, you have to pay attention to
yourself, to identify the potential of your personality.
Personal potential. Potential implies opportunities. It may or may not be used, realised, developed.
In addition, such capacities may be hidden; they may not be recognised by the individual. They
may be denied or disregarded. In this case, they remain as potential. For example, aptitudes. They
are prerequisites. They need to be developed.
It is not uncommon to hear the phrase: “You have so much potential! Why don’t you use it?”, —
that people say. It is obvious to others that a person has abilities! But not to him/herself. This is where
the line between personal potential and personal resources lies.
Potential is Latin for “strength, power” and resource is French for “auxiliary”. You need to be
aware of your power and harness it. In psychology, potential is often defined as the ability to develop and multiply one’s abilities.
Thus, given at the time of birth, the development of personality traits already known to you,
relating to the type of temperament, manifested very early. Already in the early days of life, we
differ from each other by this criterion. However, over the years, and these characteristics and remain for a person at best a distinctive feature, and at worst a cause of mental discomfort, disagreements with others.
It is interesting to consider what possibilities and limitations are inherent in us. And it is especially interesting to approach the study of the diversity of one’s personality for self- knowledge, selfacceptance, self- development.
Diversity of personal resources. It is extremely difficult to systematise and describe all possible
personal resources. We do not have such a task. But it is important for us to understand what can be
considered personal resources.
If we try to look at the wide range of our capabilities, it turns out that they can be almost anything. As long as we use them. Us and everything around us. The environment in which we live.
These are natural factors: the plant and animal world. Artificially created environment: residential buildings, business quarters, industrial plants. And, of course, the social environment: people,
communities.
We will look at some examples. Based on the personality structure we have taken as a basis,
it is logical to consider the resource options on this basis. This will already be enough to understand how rich and individual our personality content is arranged.
On the biological level of the personality structure, we have taken as a basis, there are resources
of the biological component of the personality.
For example, the features of the nervous system. The predominance of the nervous process of excitation over the process of inhibition gives us strength, energy, activity. The predominance of the inhibitory process over the excitatory process guarantees rest, relaxation, recovery. As personal resources, these features are our helpers if we manage them. Not the other way round.
Temperament is represented by types such as phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine, melancholic.
Pure types of temperament almost never occur, they combine in us. Only some of them appear
more often and brighter.
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Sanguine person is emotional, has excellent performance, adaptability. He is proactive, optimistic, sociable, relatively easy to experience failure. But often avoids acute problems, simplifies
the task.
Phlegmatic is calm even in difficult situations, imperturbable, stable, consistent aspirations and relationships. Sticks to the established order, seeks a system, unhurried and thorough. At the same time,
he is inert, slow to switch from one job to another.
Choleric is characterised by quick actions and decisions, frequent mood swings, increased excitability. In relationships often overly harsh, straightforward in assessments. Often unfriendly, he does
not know how to contain himself, has the inf luence on others, quickly passes from one thing to another. Likes to be the centre of attention.
Melancholic quickly fatigue, not sure of himself, anxious and suspicious. Good judge of the shades
of feelings, cautious and cautious. Secrecy and shy, strongly experienced at the slightest opportunity.
Difficult to adapt to new people.
The biosocial level. The biological substructure. The biosocial substructure has both biological and social components. But the biological one is more significant. Our cognitive processes run
according to its nature. Thus, thinking processes of different people have different dynamics. Some
grasp everything on the fly, others take time to process the information they receive.
Thinking allows you to get knowledge about objects, properties and relations of the world that
cannot be directly perceived by the senses. Intelligence is related to thinking and manifests itself
in solving a variety of tasks. We solve them in different ways.
Creative thinking manifests itself in novelty; for example, in a scientific discovery. A new material
product appears in the process of the practical intellect. These are all aspects of creativity as the manifestation of a complete, self- improving personality.
Personal emotional resources. The manifestations of our personality diversity are changeable.
Sometimes even the most outgoing sanguine wants to be alone, while the melancholic, who tends
to react deeply to seemingly insignificant events, will suddenly become cold and even harsh.
The world is in constant flux, and we are experiencing it for ourselves. What is significant, valuable causes a response within us, changes our condition. This is how the emotional state of the mind
functions.
Psycho-emotional states function as a background to our life activity, and emotions accompany
us everywhere, even when we sleep. Hence, the common phrases such as “I can’t talk now, I’m not
in the right state of mind”, and “I’m in such a mood that I’m ready to embrace the whole world”.
Emotion is a very powerful energy. It was strange and highly irrational to give up such a resource.
The concept of emotional intelligence has now spread in the scientific and popular literature. Approaches, concepts and models that define it have been born very quickly and are still flourishing.
Generally and briefly emotional intelligence can be represented as the ability to understand one’s own
emotional state and the state of others, and effectively manage the interaction on the basis of such understanding.
A certain level of emotional intelligence is necessary for personal development. For example,
the ability to clearly recognise the feelings of another enables one to inf luence and inspire others;
managing one’s own emotions enables one to work in a stressful situation.
Emotional intelligence consists of a variety of competencies that can be grouped into the following: emotional self- awareness, emotional self- management, social sensitivity, and social skills.
All of these areas are closely interconnected, influencing and complementing each other. Importantly, any of these components are trainable and can be influenced in childhood as well as in adulthood.
To tap into an emotional resource means to make emotions your companion; for example,
to direct the energy of emotions in a constructive way. Just imagine how much power is invested
in the emotions of anger and the state of aggression! This is something that is seldom agreed upon.
However, both the resource of emotion and the other resources of the personality remain unattended by us.
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Examples of personal limitations. We have already had the opportunity to see that there is a lot
given to everyone. What biological components can we consider through the prism of personal limitations? For example, age. Personality in its development passes through a series of successive stages,
periods. Each period has its own characteristics. This is described in detail by the authors of different
age periodisation of mental development.
Of course, the most active periods are in the first 20 years of life. So, in the student years young people
are full of energy, striving to accumulate their experience, to find their place in life, the way of professional self- realisation. However, this is the age of maximalism, when not yet fully formed independence conflicts with the requirements of a more experienced generation. This can be seen as a limitation.
Throughout life, we go through crises. They are inevitable. But they are also an opportunity
to grow, to mature, to move to a new, higher level of personal development.
In science, there have long been debates about the age at which personal development ceases. Now
this debate has almost lost its significance. It turns out that throughout life some people overcome crisis periods and move on, upwards and forward. And others do not. In psychology, it’s called fixation.
Perhaps you have met someone who is clearly mature, with the attitudes and behaviour of a teenager? That is also a limitation.
An example of a biosocial limitation would be undiscovered abilities, or, more precisely, the potential. It happens that since childhood a person is immersed in various activities. But when growing up,
there is a feeling that this is not satisfying. The reasons may be different. In particular, when one’s life path
has been programmed by others so rigidly that one’s individual impulses are simply not taken into account.
We have already illustrated the socio-biological level of the personality structure and its limitations with an example. Remember bad habits?
The social level is complex, multi-faceted. Let us imagine a person who has lived his whole life
in completely isolated conditions. He has developed a picture of the world, his beliefs, his values. Suddenly he finds himself in a big city, in the midst of all the fruits of civilisation. Here the individual
will have to learn anew, to overcome the limitations of his worldview. The cinema actively exploits
this theme. I think you can think of examples.
Let us go back to a person’s self- concept. Here lurks the limitations of our self- concept, as you remember. The self- concept is the source of motivation that drives us. Of course, it is self- esteem and the associated pretensions level. This is the reason why some people say, “I’ll never make it” and others say,
“I know I can”. We are getting closer to the defining core of self- concept — self- esteem.
Success and self- development. Self-confidence in oneself, one’s strength and the ability to succeed is related to self- esteem.
Self-esteem is a generalised attitude of a person towards himself, characterised by the ratio of his
actual achievements to his pretensions.
W. James proposed the following formula of self- esteem: self- esteem is equal to the ratio of success to pretensions. Thus, a person’s self- esteem is directly proportional to the amount of success he
or she has achieved and inversely proportional to the level of his or her pretensions.
A high level of self- esteem is characterised by the following: the higher the ambition, the greater the achievement of the individual. It follows that there are two ways to increase self- esteem: in one
case it is necessary to make maximum effort and achieve success, and this is a difficult task; in the other case a person can lower the pretensions level and then, even with the most modest success, selfesteem will not be lost.
A high level of self- esteem gives a person a sense of comfort and stimulates the development
of pretensions level. Low self- esteem, on the other hand, leads to acute dissatisfaction with oneself
and provokes neurosis and depression.
But dissatisfaction with oneself and high self- criticism do not always indicate low self- esteem.
For example, intellectually advanced, creative people are acutely aware of the discrepancy between
the qualities they possess and those they would like to possess. This leads to dissatisfaction with one-
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self, which induces people to raise their aspirations, set themselves more challenging tasks, and strive
for self- improvement and self- actualisation.
Thus, it is important to make a decision, to be prepared to overcome both difficulties in general and personal limitations. But this decision is an autonomous one, its own. Only yourself can be
held responsible for it and its consequences. Emotions will serve as a signal: dissatisfaction will help
us focus on its causes; satisfaction will show the way of development is successfully overcome. Our
well-being, as W. James said, depends on ourselves.
Ways to overcome personal limitations. It is not enough to decide to take the path of overcoming personal limitations. It is necessary to act. And you have to act with purpose. It is therefore necessary to set a goal. We will discuss this important point separately.
In order to set a goal, it is a good idea to orient yourself and understand what you want. It is not easy.
You also have to revise your qualities; you have to identify your strengths. These will serve as a support.
If you have oriented yourself and set a goal, but do not know exactly what to do, what actions
to take, you can refer to other people’s existing experiences. Something will work, something will
not. This is normal. After all, it is another person’s experience. It is possible to draw on private experience. Either way, it will broaden your bank of possibilities, and ideally, you will use approaches that
are out of the box for you. It is a great way to push yourself beyond your limits.
Do you feel you lack courage, determination, perseverance? Train your willpower first. Notice
how you are getting irritable? Practice emotional resilience.
There are times when it seems that nothing needs to be changed globally. But there are particular limitations. For example, you have admitted that you are afraid of being in a crowded audience.
Everyone has his or her own limitations, which, as they say, you can live with. But if it stresses you
out, if your favourite job is public speaking, if you want to feel free in such conditions, you can practice. For example, gradually increase the number of people in the audience. Prepare and speak in front
of three, then five spectators. And then increase the number of people present.
Of course, this will take time. It has been known to take three to six weeks to form a new habit.
So, keep in mind that it will be a long-distance run. Throughout life, personal structures have only
become more resilient. Figuratively speaking, it is a real shell. It is both a protection for us and a terrible weight that restrains and nails us to the ground. We have developed stable, stereotypical patterns
of reaction and behaviour. It takes quite a long time to train. Be prepared for that. And be ready to give
it all up and go back to your old life and your old self. Hang in there!
On the other hand, it is a very interesting process. Personal resistance will give way to change.
You will feel it.
Summary
1. Personality reflects the social nature of a person.
2. The individual decides for himself what is his personal resource and what is not.
3. The success of overcoming personal limitations depends mainly on the characteristics of a per-
son’s self- concept.
4. The state of harmony and mental health is determined by a number of interrelated components:
perceived and unconscious needs, desires and aspirations of the individual; possibilities: availability
of necessary abilities, latent potential; environmental conditions: influence exerted on the individual,
subjective perception of this inf luence; understanding: acceptance or rejection of the current situation.
5. The ranking of factors hindering success in terms of importance differs considerably between
the researchers and the respondents themselves.
Think about and answer these questions
1. How do you think what kind of person does have a personality and what kind does not?
2. What do you think are your personal limitations and what are your opportunities?
3. What role does education play in your ability to overcome your personal limitations?
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Main Aims and Outcomes. As a result of studying this material, you will learn:
– how the concept of “self- governance” is related to the concepts of “self- regulation” and “self-
organisation”;
– how four main approaches to defining the essence of the concept “self- organisation” differ: per-
sonal, activity-based, integral (personal-activity-based) and technical;
– what influence the level of a person’s self- organisation has on his/her efficiency in any kind
of activity, including educational and professional ones;
– which structural-functional models of the process of self- organisation are the most efficient for
analysing a person’s activity;
– what components are included in the holographic model of self- organisation process (A.D. Ishkov).
Keywords: self- organisation, self- management, self- regulation, goal setting, situation analysis,
planning, self- control, correction, effort of will.
The concepts of self- governance, self- regulation and self- organisation are widely known
and frequently used in everyday life. In some cases, including in academic circles, these concepts are seen as synonymous, believing that they are one and the same. Indeed, at first glance,
there is no fundamental difference between the above concepts and it seems that they can be
used as synonyms. However, when analysing their constituent self- processes, content, function and role, the differences between them become clear and the reasons why each of the highlighted processes (self- governance, self- organisation, self- regulation) should be considered as independent.
Self-management can be seen as a person’s ability to predict future outcomes, set long-range
goals, plan their own actions and activities, put forward quality assessment criteria, retrieve necessary information about the management process and make adjustments to it.
Self-regulation represents partial, local changes within the boundaries of externally set or
self- imposed norms. In the case of conscious, voluntary self- regulation, the individual accepts
the goal, norms and benchmarks set for him or her.
W hile s el f- ma n age m e nt le a ds to t he de v e l opme n t of the i nd ivi d ual , a r bi tr a r y s elf- r egu lat i o n s t abilises and anchors the standard techniques and ways of behaviour in experience. Self-management is a mechanism, a condition of self- organisation, the preservation and establishment
of an integral system and its development.
When we speak of organisation, we are referring to a set of processes or actions leading
to the formation and improvement of the relationships between the parts of the whole. Organisation as a process can be directed towards an external entity. If the organisation is directed at its
own structure, this is called self- organisation. A person, a group, a team, an enterprise may be
self- organising.
Self-organisation is studied as a special type of development of natural systems (biological
sciences) and as a result of self- organisation in social organisation (social sciences). Regularities
and mechanisms of human self- organisation are studied in psychology.
The hierarchy of self- organisation elements and self- processes is as follows:
1. At the base is autoregulation: involuntary self- regulation in the life support system of ani-
mals and humans (physiological level).
2. The lower level is a complex process of arbitrary regulation carried out.
3. The middle level defines mental self- management, which is a creative process connected with
the creation of something new, the encounter with an unusual situation or contradiction, the need
to set new goals, the search for new solutions and means of achieving goals (psychological level).
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4. The upper level characterises inter-management as a purposeful change of relations
in the group, arising in the course of joint activity and in communication (interpersonal level).
There are two stages in the development of a self- governing system:
1. The first stage in the development of a self- management system is the creation of its horizontal structure. A person develops and develops the ability to prognosticate, plan, control, etc.
2. The aim of the second stage of development is to create a vertical organisation of the system of self- management. Man learns and develops the ability to consciously and purposefully
change the whole hierarchy of his activity forms: experiences, activities, behaviour, communication.
Mental self- administration and self- regulation are characterised by the conscious influence
of the individual on:
a) mental phenomena inherent in him (processes, state, properties);
b) the activity carried out by him;
c) own behaviour with the purpose of maintenance (preservation) or change of character
of their course.
Mental self- management and self- regulation are correlated as a whole and a part: management
includes regulation. Self-management specifies motives for activity, sets goals, defines ways
to achieve them, while self- regulation is concerned with the implementation of what has been
planned.
Mental self- organisation and approaches to its study. The ideas of self- organisation were
originated in physiology and psychology at the beginning of the 20th century: in the works
of A.A. Ukhtomsky (dominant theory) and in the studies of Gestalt psychologists, who formulated a number of general theoretical and methodological principles.
The study of psychic self- organisation was initiated relatively recently. However, already now
the results of these studies and specific recommendations on psychic self- organisation are in demand by practitioners in various fields of activity: athletes, managers, teachers, doctors, etc.
Psychotherapists are particularly interested in this research because of the ability of the selforganising system to self- organise and self- repair.
Mental self- organisation is viewed as an integrated set of natural and socially acquired characteristics that are embodied in conscious features of will and intellect, motives of behaviour,
and implemented in the orderliness of activity and behaviour. Self-organisation is considered to be
an indicator of a person’s personal maturity. The main feature of high self- organisation of a person is his active creation of himself as a personality.
The ability to organise oneself is shown in the clear planning of one’s life and affairs, in the rational use of one’s energy and time. In professional activity, self- organisation is the ability to use
one’s own intellectual and emotional-volitional traits to solve professionally significant tasks.
Self-organisation is a process of conscious and purposeful construction of one’s personality,
based on the available benchmarks and results of self- assessment. In this case the standard (model) of a specialist or ideal ideas about professional and public significance of activity results
can serve as an image-conceptual model of self- organisation.
Psychological literature identifies four main approaches to defining the essence of the concept
“self- organisation”: the personal, activity, integral (personal activity), and technical approaches.
Personal approach. Self-organisation is understood as a personal formation. In this case
the property or complex of personal properties that form or determine such a psychological quality as organisation (personal self- organisation) is distinguished and studied.
The personal approach to research of self- organisation proceeds from the fact that characteristics of a person’s self- organisation system essentially depend on the general level of his/her mental development — intellectual, volitional, emotional, moral, and is directed at studying personal
prerequisites of self- organisation.
The activity-based approach considers self- organisation as a process consisting of certain steps (operations, functions, skills). The aim of this area of research is to study the structure
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