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Their achievements in this area later formed the basis of modern propaganda theory. It is noteworthy that in the midst of the
confrontation in August 1943, the allies of the USSR in the
anti-Hitler coalition had already begun to discuss the post-war
order of the world. And in it the Soviet Union was to remain
weakened. Therefore, immediately after the end of the Second
World War, Western countries began the Cold War against the
USSR, which was mainly informational.
Despite the initial parity in strength, after a while the Soviet Union lost ground.
In the Council on Foreign Relations of the United States,
the General Staff of the information war against the USSR was
created, which set the goal for the British-American intelligence services to seek and promote people in the Soviet nomenclature who could contribute to the collapse of the USSR. Such
a person was, for example, M. Gorbachev.
These and other actions of the West eventually led to the
loss of the USSR in this information war, and, ultimately, to
the collapse of the country. The world has become unipolar.
A kind of ABC of propaganda was formulated in a systematic manner in the United States in the late 1930s at the Institute
for Propaganda Analysis and included seven specific implementation methods (Tab. 2.1).
Table 2.1
Seven specific implementation methods (R. Hobbs, S. McGee)
Technology name Interpretation Example
Name Calling
Band Wagon
Trick to make us accept
a conclusion without full
consideration of essential
facts in the case
A trick used to seize our
emotions, to make us
follow the political Pied
Pipers and bring others
along with us
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Father Coughlin calls
President Franklin
D. Roosevelt “a liar”
Everybody’s doing it
The end of table 2.1
Technology name Interpretation Example
An attempt to sway
emotions through the
Glittering Gener-
alities
Flag Wav-
ing / Тransfer
“Plain Folks”
Testimonial
Stacking the Cards
use of shining ideals or
virtues, such as freedom,
justice, truth, education,
democracy in a large,
general way
A trick in which the
propagandist holds up
a symbol, such a flag,
that we recognized and
respect.
A trick in which
the propagandist
demonstrates they are
like the rest of us or just
plain folk
Best represented by the
straw vote, this trick
involves getting not
only good, plain, solid
citizens, but also social
and business leaders to
endorse the party or the
candidate
A trick in which
the propagandist
intentionally or
unintentionally stacks
the cards against the
facts
“What America needs”,
says Roosevelt, “is
economic security for all”
Roosevelt made a symbol
of the horse and buggy
when he spoke of an anti
New Deal Supreme Court
decision
It is proverbial that
political candidates
always kiss babies
If large numbers of
individuals can be seen
voting for Roosevelt or
for Landon, it is likely
to cause many additional
votes for them
In 1936, with unemploy-
ment still the serious
issue in America, the
Republican propagandists
blames the Democrats for
not ending it
The specificity of propaganda technologies consists in the
following aspects. First, propaganda is based on the desire to
suppress the reactions of the mind, to influence feelings and
emotions; it appeals only to those assessments that are shared
by the majority of the population. Secondly, it is implemented on the simplification and multiple replication of evaluative
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reactions, introduction of assessments by contrasting the positions of competitors. The most important role and stability
in the political market are provided for propaganda by symbolization and elements of counter-propaganda in the information
space. The functions of propaganda are numerous and are at
the root of any ruling regime:
• management of interpretations of events based on the recipient’s conviction of the legitimacy of the views and positions
of the communicator, restructuring of the receivers’ consciousness; in public policy, it tries to set completely definite patterns of thinking, assessing or diagnosing events to the mass
audience in order to ensure ideological control and unification
of the political thinking of citizens;
• practical activation of consciousness, translation
of knowledge and ideas of a political actor into the sphere of behavioral motivation;
• the fight against ideological opponents, the neutralization of hostile actions, when the structure and content of the
propaganda influence are deliberately built in such a way as
to suppress the political positions of opponents, to reduce the
mobilizing effect of their programs, goals, values; in extreme
cases, the propaganda design of the ideological struggle leads
not only to the polarization of political discourse in society, but
also to the transfer of this atmosphere of tension from the political sphere to other types of social relations, including the
private life of a person.
A large number of types can be found in propaganda studies. We will offer a mixed typology with some explanations and
examples of some of their types.
propaganda by action (involving the use of various types
of intimidation of the recipient, as well as topics that are painfully perceived by the audience, for example, memories of defeats in wars or political battles); it is primarily associated with
acts of violence perpetrated by proponents of insurrectionary
anarchism in the late 19th and early 20th century, including
bombings and assassinations aimed at the ruling class:
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April 4, 1866 – Dmitry
Karakozov makes
an unsuccessful
attempt on the life
of Tsar Alexander II
of Russia at the gates
of the Summer Garden
in St. Petersburg
• ideological propaganda (dissemination of certain systems
of values, goals, “national ideas” and other ideas aimed at integrating society as a whole or individual political groups or communities):
• positive propaganda that carries and disseminates positive and constructive ideas for the whole society:
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• negative propaganda spreading biased ideas and knowingly causing damage (psychological and other) to certain segments of the population:
• sociological propaganda (the use of elements of the everyday subject environment to create often unconscious ideological or political preferences of people):
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• propaganda by means of art (trying to create a system
of subjective attachments, internal adherence, ideological involvement of people to certain doctrines, concepts or goals using the means of monumental architecture, painting, graphics,
posters and even music);
• scientific propaganda (conducted on the basis of scientific doctrines and concepts with the application of conclusions
and recommendations arising from their content);
• retal (mass) propaganda (designed to interact with a mass
object, a wide social audience and involving the use of special
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structures, institutions and mechanisms for disseminating
information: the media, special departments, etc.) and axial
propaganda (work with a narrow, specially selected part of the
population);
• direct (explicit) propaganda (use of public statements,
appeals, openly sounding criticism of opponents, self-promotion, etc.) and implicit propaganda (indirect impact on the audience, the technology of using various subtexts, allegories,
hidden hints, etc.).
Sometimes you can find such types of propaganda as “white,
gray and black”.
• “White” propaganda is conducted on behalf of the acting
actor when disclosing sources and forms of information dissemination.
• “Gray” propaganda is based on concealment of the source
of information and the use of information technologies that
function on the verge of public decency and are regarded by society as unworthy.
• “Black” propaganda presumes the use of technologies and
methods of falsification and disinformation that violate the
moral and ethical, and sometimes legal norms of a society.
Despite various attempts to give classifications of acceptable or conventional and unacceptable forms, we note that
in practice they are almost never intertwined in their pure
form.
The practical implementation of different types of political
propaganda is obtained through the use of modern technologies
that do not reject the classical ones (the ABC of propaganda),
but complement them. So, modern propaganda technologies include:
• focusing public attention on unimportant events (while
the main goal is to distract the audience from “inconvenient” or
unpopular topics);
• information shaft (“white noise”); this technology involves masking the “main” message by mentioning many different news and topics without any evaluative comments, as well
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as information fragmentation (e.g. listing in the news statistics
on coronavirus in the country, opening of the Crimean bridge after snowfalls, court hearing in the Navalny case, thaw – weather, celebration on February 23);
• false analogies (such technology is based on incorrect associations and comparisons, for example, comparing Putin and
Hitler);
• so-called objective approach is based on the conscious
construction of facts with a biased selection of facts and points
of view; so, in the modern world at the regional and global level,
the most popular questions are about the polarity of the world,
the role of international law, and the answers to these questions
are extremely contradictory;
• semantic manipulation involves a careful selection and
a special arrangement of concepts that cause either positive
or negative associations, which allows us to influence the perception of information (we are fighters for the independence,
prosperity of Russia, they are occupiers, enslavers of the people; behind us all progressive humanity, common people, behind
them – oligarchs, bandits, officials);
• use of slang and jargon, vernacular, metaphors and hyperbole, idioms,
• distribution of government clips, production of films
with “exposure” of opponents, organization of political debates
and conferences of spectators, use of administrative resources
in the formation of political discourse.
In addition, Robert Cole’s The International Encyclopedia
of Propaganda highlights many other methods of propaganda:
• • “Going personal” (ad hominem) – an attack on the opponent himself, not his arguments. There is a translation of political discussions into a moral plane.
• “Appeal to fear”.
• “ppeal to prejudice”.
• “Repetition” (ad nauseam) – regardless of whether the information is true or not, a person will believe in it if it is repeated
repeatedly. This principle was formulated by Joseph Goebbels.
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• “Big Lie” – a complete lie, clear disinformation. This
technique was recorded by Adolf Hitler in the book “My Struggle”. According to him, it is necessary to resort to a lie so huge
that everyone thinks that it is impossible to lie so blatantly. For
example, the Nazis convinced the German people that in the
Middle Ages, Jews killed Christian children and used their
blood to make bread for Easter.
• “Black-and-white fallacy” – in this case, only two options
are presented to choose from, for example, “you are either with
us or against us...”. At the same time, “with us” is positioned as
the best possible outcome.
• “Default” or “selective truth”.
• “Cognitive dissonance”. This technology forces people to
be consistent, otherwise there will be a feeling of psychological
discomfort.
• “Demonizing the enemy”. This technique is an appeal to
fear.
• “Disinformation” – a direct forgery of photographs,
sound recordings, printed documents, and so on.
• “Euphemism” is a word that replaces another, uncomfortable for this situation or rude, obscene. Thanks to euphemisms, a person or phenomenon is discredited.
• “Foot in the door” – a social contract, according to which
a service is returned for a service.
• “Quotes taken out of context”.
• “Scapegoat”.
• “Slogans”.
• “Unstated assumption”.
• “Undeniable truth” (thought-terminating cliche).
• “Guilt by association”.
The methods of perception and reflection of information
created by propaganda find practical implementation through
the implementation of another non-marketing form – Agita-
tion. It is the next stage in achieving the goals of propaganda,
and can often be interpreted as part of propaganda, since it is
also aimed at controlling the mind of the recipient. Its main
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priority is not all, but only certain elements of human thinking,
those that are “responsible” for prompting the practical activities of people. Agitation, to an even greater extent than propaganda, is projected onto the use of the emotional components
of the recipients’ consciousness. The main ideological material
with which agitation “works” is concentrated mainly in the program documents of parties and governments, political demands
and directives, slogans and appeals.
In the arsenal of modern technologies of political agitation,
one can single out the following:
• combining verbal and visual means of conveying information, which enhances the impact of political ideas and goals
on various segments of the population;
• overcoming (blocking, displacing to the periphery of consciousness) disturbing information;
• activation of people’s sensory perception of potential
danger (fear);
• “Stunning” consciousness when referring
to certain “painful” points
of the audience (negative
memories and other ideas
that create inner discomfort);
• mechanisms of “filtering” (removing certain
information from memory
into the area of active consciousness)
• identification mechanisms (involving the
projection or assignment
of negative assessments
to the enemy, and positive
ones to oneself);
• associative methods,
• NLP;
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