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and transmitting information, connecting to unified computer networks, implementing informatization programs for
economic sectors, creating databases (government to government – G2G);
2) interaction between government agencies and commercial organizations leading to the development of electronic
commerce (government to business – G2B);
3) ensuring the rights of citizens to the free exchange of information (search, transfer, production and distribution) (government to citizen – G2C);
4) communications of the state with international structures (G2M).
One of the specific practices in the implementation of the
electronic approach to public administration is electronic voting, which has gained popularity in Western countries. However, it has a number of problems and limitations related to falsification, protection of personal data, and so on. And in general,
the introduction of an electronic state is limited to issues of ensuring state secrets, security, and the dissemination of negative (terrorist, extremist) information.
At the same time, the ideas of e-government, together with
the managerial approach, are aimed at better provision of public services to the population.
In practice, different countries and world regions are implementing their own e-government implementation strategies. In democracies, these practices are based on the formation
of public policy jointly by the state and civil structures, including the opposition. In the conditions of authoritarian regimes,
the states do not carry out information contacts with disloyal
and opposition centers, sometimes forbidding their activities.
In addition, the large-scale introduction of information technologies raises the problem of electronic forms of surveillance
of a person, as well as manipulations carried out in relation to
specific citizens, the population of countries or the world community by various actors of political communications, including the states themselves.
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Lecture Review Questions
1. What are the main problems in determining the subject
field of political communications?
2. What prerequisites served as the basis for the develop-
ment of classical models of political communications?
3. What are the features and what are the prospects for the
study of political communications at the beginning of the 21st
century?
4. What are the specifics of Russian studies of political
communications?
5. What is the impact of the transformation of political communications’ forms of on the public administration system?
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LECTURE 2. TYPES OF POLITICAL
COMMUNICATIONS
Key Terms: marketing types of political communications,
non-marketing types of political communications, propaganda, agitation, information war.
In this lecture, we explore the types of political communications within the framework according to the classifications that
are practically generally accepted. If the paradigms for the interpretation of the very nature and specifics of political communications are debatable, then a relative consensus has developed
regarding their types in scientific and professional discourse.
Thus, it is possible to single out the so-called marketing and
non-marketing types of mass political communications. We
need to immediately make a reservation about the term “mass”.
Despite current trends in the individualization and fragmentation of people’s participation in politics, the personification and targeting of the content of political communications,
the technologies themselves practically do not change.
In general, we can talk about marketing (Political advertising,
State PR, Political management/marketing) and non-marketing
(Propaganda, Agitation) forms of political communications.
The main mechanisms used by almost all participants in the
communication process are based primarily on manipulative techniques. In this regard, within the framework of this textbook, we
will dwell in more detail on non-marketing forms, and only mention the marketing forms of political communications since a huge
number of works are devoted to individual political technologies
within the framework of applied political disciplines.
Marketing types of political
communications
Marketing political communications have much in common
with the ways in which goods and services are promoted in the
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commercial sector. Information exchange between the sender and the recipient of information is carried out on the basis
of providing the latter with information in accordance with his
needs and preferences.
Marketing communications allow the transmission of messages in order to make them attractive to the audience, and in general they are aimed at managing the promotion of information.
Political advertising is a kind of marketing communication in the political sphere, the basis of this communication is
a message that is spread by the media in order to obtain a specific result in conditions of freedom of political choice is used
as a universal technology used by the state, its individual elements, parties or politicians to position themselves in the power sphere.
Objects of political advertising can be politically organized
order in the state and society, ideological priorities of the political regime, iconic figures of the ruling regime or politicians
who personify the policy of the authorities, individual acts and
projects of the government affecting the interests of broad social strata, relations with other states affecting the implementation of the country’s national interests.
State PR is one of the forms of public communication
of the government to gain public support for its political line
and create a positive image of the state as a whole. It is based
on the idea of feedback from the population, that is, the formation of a strategy based on the idea of self-organization
of society and the conscious maintenance of order by coordinating the goals of the subjects of social activity. The main purpose of state PR is associated with the permanent representation of this institution in the information space in conditions
of fierce competition from other participants in the communicative space, ideological pluralism.
Without going into the author’s understanding and definitions of Political marketing/management, in this textbook we will present the approach of the Russian scientist
E.G Morozova: “This is a definite concept of practical poli-
37
cy and management, equipped with a set of technologically
refined knowledge and skills in the field of studying social
needs, proposing political and managerial decisions that
meet these needs, implementing the adopted course, until the
desired result is obtained” (Morozova, E.G. Political market
and political marketing: concepts, models, technologies).
Non-marketing types of political
communications
Non-marketing political communications have fundamental differences from competitive forms. They are based on
one-sidedness of information flows which means almost lack
of feedback from society, taking into account value orientations exclusively of the state and ruling regime. In other words,
non-marketing types disregard for the interests of society as
a consumer of information.
Propaganda
Historically, the first form of non-marketing political communications was Propaganda, which actually began the development of a scientific discipline in the early 20th century. This
type of communication is a targeted dissemination of information in order to persuade social groups, society as a whole ignoring the interests of recipients of information; it is also it
also implies rejection of opponents’ positions.
The term “propaganda” (from Latin propaganda – to be distributed) first appeared during the years of the “Thirty Years’
War” (1618–1648). This war began as a religious clash between
the Protestants and the Catholics of the Holy Roman Empire.
In order to spread the Catholic faith and coordinate efforts
in the ideological struggle against the Protestants, Pope Urban VII in 1623 founded the organization de propaganda fidei.
This is where the name came from.
As a result, the very word “propaganda” acquired a negative connotation in Protestant countries, but a positive con-
38
notation in Catholic ones (the term was used in the sense
of “preaching”).
The word became commonly used only in the 20th century
during the First World War. Immediately after the start of the
war, an active information confrontation began. In the power
structures of the warring countries (except Germany and Russia), specialized bodies were created in order to carry out information and psychological influence on the troops and the population.
In 1914, the War Propaganda Bureau was formed under the
British Foreign Office. Subsequently, this bureau was renamed
the Ministry of Information. The new name itself is an example
of word manipulation. In 1915, a military propaganda department was formed under the French Ministry of Defense.
In 1917, a committee on public information began its work
in the United States. Committee chairman George Creel created an extensive network of channels of information influence
throughout America. Since at that time the mass media were
mainly limited to print publications, it was problematic to
disseminate important information in a timely manner. Mobile groups of volunteers formed under the committee came to
the rescue. These volunteers went to crowded places (schools,
churches, etc.) and very briefly (within four minutes) reported the latest news, for which they were nicknamed “four-minutes”. Moreover, the influence was exerted both on the enemy
and on their own citizens.
As for Germany, until August 1918 there was a ban on the
publication and distribution of leaflets. After the lifting of the
ban, Germany began to massively publish leaflets and distribute them to the enemy troops, but the measure was untimely,
and as a result, the Germans lost the war.
Thus, the First World War showed the colossal potential
of information and psychological impact. In subsequent years,
special departments were created at many universities, which
began to train specialists in the theory and practice of propaganda, as well as numerous studies on this topic, and books
39
were published. The most noteworthy is Harold Lasswell’s
Propaganda Technique in the World War (1927), which demonstrates the special role of propaganda in confrontation. G. Lasswell presented propaganda as a special type of weapon that affects the mental state of the enemy. The author for the first
time in the world singled out the information-psychological
sphere of war.
Immediately after the National Socialist Party came to power, the slogan thundered: “Propaganda helped us come to power. Propaganda will help us hold on to power. Propaganda will
help us conquer the whole world”. The Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda was formed in the country, headed by
Joseph Goebbels. In addition to general political propaganda,
the ministry began to be in charge of the affairs of the press, radio and art. As a result, the moral and psychological state of society was placed under the total control of the state machine.
In the areas of warfare, the functions of conducting propaganda were taken over by the department of military propaganda
of the Wehrmacht.
The German leadership, while preparing for the war against
the Soviet Union, focused on the informational aspect of the
confrontation. External disinformation and propaganda were
used by the Germans to fulfill several strategic tasks: firstly, to
disguise preparations for war, and, consequently, to form false
ideas of the Soviet leadership about the reasons for the movement of troops near the borders of the USSR (the latter was justified by their reorganization, transfer to training camps, etc.);
secondly, to hide the total number of German troops in the
East; and, thirdly, to convince Germany that England remains
the main adversary. At first, Soviet intelligence struggled to
cope with a scattered, inaccurate and often false flow of information, which led to the first losses. And yet, after the Soviet
troops managed to seize the initiative in this war.
Having lost the First World War, the Germans were forced
to draw conclusions. The leadership of fascist Germany seriously took up the problems of conducting military propaganda.
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