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Файл:Philosophy. Educational manual
.pdf
СРЕДНЕЕ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ
_____________________________________________________________
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution
of Higher Education «Samara State Medical University»
of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation
N.V. Baraboshina, Yu.A. Kuzovenkova
PHILOSOPHY
EDUCATIONAL MANUAL
Рекомендовано Учебно-методическим отделом СПО издательства
в качестве учебного пособия для использования в учебном процессе
образовательными учреждениями среднего профессионального образования
по всем профессиям и специальностям
Mosсow
IPR Media
2023
UDC 008
LBC 87.0+71.0
Б24
Authors:
Baraboshina N.V. — PhD in philosophy, associated professor in the Department
of Philosophy and Culturology of Samara State Medical University;
Kuzovenkova Yu.A. — PhD in culturology, associated professor in the Department
of Philosophy and Culturology of Samara State Medical University
Reviewers:
Razinov Yu.A. — PhD in philosophy, professor in the Department of Philosophy
of Korolev Samara National Research University;
Solovyeva S.V. — PhD in philosophy, Associate Professor, Head
of the Department of Philosophy and History of Science,
Samara State Transport University
Baraboshina, Natalia Vladimirovna.
Б24 Philosophy : educational manual / N.V. Baraboshina, Yu.A. Kuzovenkova ; Samara
State Medical University. — Mosсow : IPR Media, 2023. — 114 p. — Text : electronic.
ISBN 978-5-4497-2292-8
The educational manual considers from the standpoint of a centuries-old
tradition of the possibilities and limits of human analysis of the world in the context of
various options for constructing socio-cultural systems. The manual contains main lines,
questions and tasks, references for each section.
The educational manual is created for students of secondary vocational schools,
technical and vocational education working program of the discipline “Philosophy”.
Educational electronic publication
ISBN 978-5-4497-2292-8 © Baraboshina N.V., Kuzovenkova Yu.A., 2023
© Samara State Medical University, 2023
© OOO IPR Media Company, 2023
Educational publication
Baraboshina Natalia Vladimirovna
Kuzovenkova Yulia Alexandrovna
Editor M.V. Polovnikova
Technical editor, computer layout M.V. Polovnikova
Cover by Ya.A. Kirsanov, S.S. Siziumova, photobank Freepik
Signed for use 04.08.2023. Data volume 7 MB.
OOO IPR Media Company
8 800 555 22 35 (toll-free in Russia)
E-mail: sale@iprmedia.ru
4
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 5
1. BEING, EXISTENCE. WHAT
AND HOW DOES IT ACTUALLY EXIST? .................................. 6
Main lines ....................................................................................... 7
Practical tasks and questions .......................................................... 24
References ...................................................................................... 29
2. SUBSTANTIAL DUALISM
OF BODY AND MIND. WHAT CAN'T
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE DO? ............................................ 30
Main lines ....................................................................................... 31
Practical tasks and questions .......................................................... 50
References ...................................................................................... 54
3. KNOWLEDGE, OPINION,
DELUSION. CAN PEOPLE
KNOW EVERYTHING? .................................................................. 55
Main lines ....................................................................................... 56
Practical tasks and questions .......................................................... 72
References ...................................................................................... 76
4. HUMAN
AS A PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUE ..................................................... 77
Main lines ....................................................................................... 78
Practical tasks and questions .......................................................... 89
References ...................................................................................... 90
5. WHERE ARE THE BOUNDARIES
OF THE SOCIAL?
PERSONALITY VS SOCIETY ....................................................... 91
Main lines ...................................................................................... 92
Practical tasks and questions. ......................................................... 112
References ...................................................................................... 114
5
INTRODUCTION
Philosophy is a centuries-old tradition of analyzing the
systemic foundations of the world and human capabilities in this
world. Philosophy has formed the subject matter of most specific
sciences, provided the foundation for logic, determined many
possibilities and limits of human knowledge of the world, and
offered many recipes for survival and overcoming life's adversities.
The authors hope it will be useful for you!
This tutorial will allow you to study the historical types of
rationality, the evolution of forms and methods of scientific
knowledge; reveal the ontological foundations of various cultural
pictures of the world; to identify the worldview attitudes of a person
of different historical eras; comprehend the system of values and
ideals which is responsible for the cultural and spiritual potential of
the individual.
6
1. BEING, EXISTENCE. WHAT
AND HOW DOES IT ACTUALLY EXIST?
Content of the topic:
Being as an issue of philosophy. Monistic and pluralistic
concepts of being. Material and ideal being. The specifics of human
existence. Space-time characteristics of being. The problem of life,
its finiteness and infinity, uniqueness and plurality in the Universe.
The idea of development in philosophy.
After the topic completion students should:
1) know:
- meaning of the issue of Being and the place of ontology in the
system of philosophical knowledge;
- changing in the substance of the issue of Being in the history
of philosophy and the correlation between these changing and
changes in culture, ways of world's understanding and human selfidentification in it;
- existential and practical meaning of the issue of Being;
- broad philosophical (invariant) meaning of notion of Matter
and its role in contemporary picture of the world;
- development of ideas about Matter in the history of
philosophy;
- problems of development in the history of philosophy;
- main models of development in philosophy;
- laws of dialectics;
- principles of dialectics;
- principles of determinism;
- importance of dialectic concepts and their meaning;
2) be able to:
- reproduce the studying material of philosophy in definitions,
judgements and conclusions;
- use philosophical and socio-political terminology;
7
- navigate in philosophical systems easily, understand their
basis;
- practise tolerance to another views and points;
3) have:
- skills of abstraction in order to select the significant features,
specificities and relationships in studying issues and doctrines;
- skills of reasonable written presentation of their own points of
view;
- skills of comparing, generalizing, systematizing of
information for further goal and task setting.
Main lines
1. Metaphysics and ontology.
To begin the study of the main part of philosophy, it is
necessary to give definitions to two concepts, which are often
regarded by scientists as identical.
Metaphysics (from the Greek. Meta — over) is a philosophical
teaching about supersensible reality which is beyond sensory
experience, experiment, observation. Only a small part of reality is
available to sensory experience. The human being has been thinking
about what is outside such experience since ancient times. First of
all, many people think about eternity, immortality, infinity, God,
freedom, worldview, etc. The totality of such reflections represents
the metaphysics, or supersensible reality.
Metaphysical supersensible foundations determine the
boundaries and possibilities for a person within the framework of
physical reality. Thus, setting the parameters of genuine being, in
contrast to everything that is absent, imaginary, changeable and
temporary. Therefore, in one place Aristotle defines metaphysics as
the subject of the first philosophy as "being as such", and in
another — as "primary causes".
The subject-matter of metaphysics is "being as such".
The subject-matter of metaphysics is the first causes of things.
The subject-matter of metaphysics is that which does not
change.
8
Approximately, from the 16th century along with the term
"metaphysics" in an equal meaning, thinkers used the term
"ontology". At present, it is generally accepted that metaphysics
includes ontology as its fundamental part, but in general it is not
identical with it.
Ontology (from the Greek. Ontos — being and logos —
doctrine) — the doctrine of being as such. This is a branch of
philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of being, the most
general, universal connections, the laws of existence. Ontology
studies concepts such as existence, being, becoming, and reality. It
includes the questions of how entities are grouped into basic
categories and which of these entities exist on the most fundamental
level. Ontology is sometimes referred to as the science of being.
At the earliest stages of the history of philosophy, philosophers
understood the connection between being as such with human
thinking.
Parmenides' thesis, which deduces being from the necessary
truth of thought about being, becomes such a justification and one of
the fundamental ideas that bind together thinking and being.
This is how the prerequisites for the methodological principle,
that played a significant role in the history of Western European
philosophy, are formed, which makes it possible to deduce the
necessity of the existence of an object from the thought of this object.
Ontological argument is a method of proof by which the
existence of an object is deduced from thought about it.
9
For example, in the Middle Ages, the ontological argument
was widely used in theology as the basis of the so-called ontological
proof of the existence of God, when the necessity of his existence is
derived from the idea of the highest perfection, otherwise it would
not have been.
We find a similar ontological argument in subsequent
philosophical teachings. The Latin "cogito, ergo sum" usually
translated into English as "I think, therefore I am", is a philosophical
statement that was made by René Descartes. This only means that
thinking becomes for Descartes the most adequate way of not only
detecting, but also certifying being. Being is the content and goal of
thinking.
In other words, ontology as a branch of philosophy develops
the principle of a sufficient basis for determining all that exists and
the conditions of this existence based on metaphysical foundations.
2. Main ontological categories.
Ontological concepts, which are traditionally called categories,
act as a kind of "bridges" connecting being as a condition of all that
exists and itself existing in its infinite diversity.
In ancient philosophy, the category "being" representing the
authenticity of the existence of the existing was contrasted with
everything that is absent or imaginary "not existing" as well as a
multitude of changeable and temporary "beings".
Unlike the word "being", the word "existence", as a rule,
expresses only an aspect of being. The word "being" is used in the
meaning of "everything that exists", "the world as a whole".
The life of a person as one of the types of beings is expressed
in the concept of "existence".
Existence is the central category of existential philosophy
(Kierkegaard, Jaspers, Heidegger, Sartre, Marseille, Camus, etc.),
denoting, first of all, a unique and directly experienced human
existence.
Substance is a philosophical category of classical rationality to
designate objective reality in the aspect of the internal unity of all
forms of its manifestation and self-development. Substance is
unchanging, in contrast to permanently changing properties and
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states: it is that which exists in itself and thanks to itself. The root
cause of what is happening. As a rule, it is substances that are
credited with freedom as the ability to define itself only by means of
its own foundations.
An accident is a property that the entity or substance has
contingently, without which the substance can still retain its identity.
An accident does not affect its essence. Aristotle made a distinction
between the essential and accidental properties of a thing.
According to Aristotle there are ten categories: substance,
quantity, quality, action, passion, relation, position, habit, place and
time.
Every real being can be included in some of these categories: It
can be substance or quantity, or quality, etc.
You can see all categories in the following sentence: The
gentleman’s (relation) big (quantity) white (quality) horse
(substance) neighs (action), is punished (passion) and gets saddled
(habit) and lied down (position) in the yard (place) in the morning
(time).
The main category is substance, and all others are accidents.
Substance is the being that is in itself, whereas accident is the
being that is in another. Accident is in substance; in other words,
substance serves as the subject of accidents. For instance: in a pen
(substance) we can differentiate several accidents: size (quantity),
colour (quality), the child to whom it belongs (relation), and if it is
on the table (position).
Accidents are in substance. For instance: colour, size
(accidents) are in pen (substance). On the contrary, substance is not
in another subject, but in itself.
At the same time some of the thinkers asserted that it was
impossible to give a positive answer on the question about the nature
of substance because a human has been limited in his cognition by
the subjective images of his perception (D. Hume).
The concept of substance causes centuries-old disputes among
philosophers on the issue of not only its qualitative, but also
quantitative certainty. Some thinkers argue that our reality is based
on one substance. Others believe that two substances coexist in the
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