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Файл:Philosophy. Educational manual
.pdf
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world of philosophy; Buddhism, Islam, Christianity in religion;
mythology myths, etc. It is important that ideal objects of subjective
reality are no less real or more transient than material objects of
objective reality.
Objective reality is the reality of material systems also of
different hierarchical rank: from elementary particles to the Universe.
7. The issue of non-being.
The category of non-being is paired with the category of being
although most philosophical teachings deny it the right to exist. In
ancient philosophy, both of these concepts appeared in the teachings
of Parmenides who denied the existence of non-existence on the
grounds that it "can neither be thought nor expressed in a word". The
importance of posing this problem is evidenced by the words of
M. Heidegger that "the question: «Why is there being, and not
nothing?» — sealed the fate of the Western world".
The rehabilitation of non-being took place in the teachings of
the atomists who accepted it as emptiness. Plato and Aristotle found
many characteristics of non-being (uncertainty, passivity, pure
possibility) in matter but still considered the latter to be the lowest
kind of being. If Plato allowed non-existence only as the content of
false statements, then Aristotle also attributed to it non-participation
in the object of certain qualities (non-white, non-good) and its
belonging to the past or to the future, but not to the present time. So
Aristotle was the first to single out absolute non-existence as
impossible by definition, and relative non-existence as an absence in
one way or another.
In medieval philosophy, the concept of non-being was replaced
by the concept of "nothing", from which God created the world. The
difference between these close terms lies only in the fact that nonbeing is opposed to being in general while nothing is opposed to all
kinds of something.
In the philosophy of the 19th–20th centuries the category of
non-existence was interpreted mainly in an existential sense (in
relation to human existence) appearing in the form of either
unconditional freedom, or fear of death, or the absence of meaning
in life.
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In the history of philosophy, being in addition to non-existence
was also opposed to a kind of super-existence devoid of all
"existential" characteristics (being outside space and time,
disobedience to all the laws of this world, unearthly perfection). In
Plato and Plotinus, the "one" possesses such super-existence, in
religious and philosophical teachings — God, in Buddhism —
nirvana, which represents both over-existence and non-existence.
8. The importance of ontology.
The term "ontology" is derived from the combination of two
Greek words: "ontos" — existence, and "logos" — a doctrine.
Accordingly, the main issue of ontology is the issue about what is the
being.
1. From the point of view of science, philosophical ontology is
a reflection on the ultimate foundations of being, in all its
manifestations, including reflection on the ultimate foundations of
the existence of the Man himself, the meaning of his life.
For a representative of any particular scientific knowledge, the
very formulation of such a question is unlawful, since it explores not
being, but a selected subject area of reality. For a philosopher, this is
an attempt to go beyond the limits of objective finitude, beyond the
limits of sensual and personal finitude and, as a result, to cognize
being as such without dividing it into separate objects.
2. From the conscious perspective of a person himself, this is a
question of what is felt (as a condition, basis, source of everything
that exists, including ourselves), but can never become an object for
us, can never be presented to our gaze.
Then ontology (as a set of philosophical teachings, systems,
approaches aimed to comprehending the category of being) is
nothing but a series of attempts to identify this condition of
everything that exists.
Obviously, that indefinite "background" (being) against which
everything that we call "existing" stands out can only be revealed by
drawing a boundary between the object (what is-existing) and its
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condition (beginning-existing), between fragment and the fullness
"from" which this fragment stands out.
Considering that this fullness is revealed to us only at the level
of a unique experience, the mentioned boundary separates at the
same time the experience itself and the representation. In other
words, ontology as thinking about being draws a boundary within the
thinker himself, thereby recreating the content of thought ("what is")
along with its condition — the experience of fullness and perfection.
This means, in turn, that ontology is not so much a thought about
being as a way of being of thought itself (and, accordingly, of
a person as a thinker).
In other words, ontology is engaged in identifying different
ways of understanding being acting at the same time as ways of
implementing, realizing being.
Within the framework of ontology the main question of
philosophy takes shape.
For the first time, the classical formulation of this question of
philosophy was given by F. Engels in his work "Ludwig Feuerbach
and the End of Classical German Philosophy", although in one form
or another this question was raised before him by other philosophers.
Here is Engels' formulation of the fundamental question of
philosophy: "The great, fundamental question of all philosophy,
especially of the latest, is the question of the relation of thought to
being, spirit to nature…". Taking into account that there is neither
pure consciousness nor pure thinking as independent entities but
there is a thinking, conscious person, just as there is no being at all,
but there is a concrete historical world representing the being of
a person, we can reformulate the main question of philosophy into
the question of the relation man to his world. And in this form it
becomes the main issue of the worldview.
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Practical tasks and questions
1. Indicate the concept corresponding to the explanation.
Explanation
Notion
A fundamental ontological
concept that defines the
boundaries of reality and its
characteristics
The cause of everything and
did not depend on anything,
it did not arise and did not
disappear; it was indivisible
The life of a person as one of
the types of beings
Branch of philosophy that
studies the fundamental
principles of being, the most
general, universal
connections, the laws of
existence
2. Indicate the name of the philosopher who made the
following thesis.
Thesis
Philosopher/s
1. First proposed the concept of "being"
Parmenides
2. Being can only be ideal, or it can be
material too
3. Being is the world of real objects
4. Being is unchanging and motionless
5. Being is the set of the simple and
indivisible physical particles — atoms
6. Being is existence of individual things
7. Being is evolving world
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3. Continue the thought:
It is important for any student to know what being is, because …
4. Give examples of the following forms of being.
Forms of being
Examples
physical phenomena
virtual being
mental phenomena
actual being
phenomenal being
substantial being
"objectified" ideas
5. Indicate the point of view characteristic of each statement.
1. A philosophy based on the premise
that nothing exists except minds and
spirits and their perceptions or ideas
A. Objective idealism
2. A philosophy based on the thesis that
we have a reality independent of our
minds. Everything depends on a divine
mind or absolute spirit for its creation
(and perhaps persistence)
B. Subjective idealism
3. A philosophy based on the thesis that
matter is the fundamental substance in
nature, and all things, including mental
states and consciousness, are results of
material interactions
C. Materialism
6. Indicate attributes of matter corresponding to the
explanation.
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Explanation
Attributes of matter
1. The entire totality of changes
2. Specific properties of this attribute is:
length, symmetry and asymmetry,
homogeneity and heterogeneity, threedimensionality
3. The process of mutual influence of
some objects on others, a general
connection between them, a change in
their states, a mutual transition and the
generation of some objects by others
4. Specific properties of this attribute
are: duration, asymmetry, irreversibility,
and one-dimensionality
5. The ability of a system to reproduce
in itself the properties of a different
material system, provided that these
systems interact
6. The relationship of the elements of
a whole
7. A complex hierarchical system with
vertical and horizontal links
8. A property without which the
existence of matter itself is impossible
9. Change in the system, which is
characterized by purposefulness,
structural properties, irreversibility. It is
associated with the emergence of new
system features
7. Complete the hierarchy of movement according to its forms:
A. mechanical; B. physical; C. _____________; D. biological;
E. ____________.
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8. Indicate approach of understanding space and time
depending on explanation.
Explanation
Approach of
understanding space
and time
1. Space and time are dependent on
each other (space-time), as well as on
matter (mass) and motion (speed)
2. Space and time as relations between
objects and processes, which makes
them dependent on material objects and
the speed of their movement
3. Increase in the relative speed of
motion of the reference frame, the
spatial extent decreases, and the
temporal duration increases
4. Space and time as the "receptacle" of
all objects and all events that exist as
substances, i.e. regardless of matter,
motion and each other
9. Complete the structuring of matter.
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10. What characteristics of development is mentioned in the
following examples?
Examples
Characteristics
of development
Invention of the landline telephone and later
the smartphone
Change of water from liquid to gaseous state
when boiled
The transformation of a bud into a flower
Growing a child into an adult
The collapse of the state
Change of seasons
Abolition of slavery
Human evolution
11. Continue the thought.
1. If we say that each change destroys things which are not
capable to development and saves capable things only it means that it
is a theory of ___________________________________________.
2. If we say that most general development laws of nature,
society and thinking, the basis of which is the relationship of
opposites it means that it is a theory _________________________.
3. If we say that true reason for development is absolute spirit
it means that it is a theory of_____________________________.
4. If we say that the ideal is only the material transferred to the
human head and transformed in it this means that it is a theory of
______________________________________.
12. What principles of materialistic dialectics do you know?
13. What is the difference between concepts and categories?
Give examples of concepts and categories?
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14. What is the difference between quality and quantity? Give
examples.
15. What do the laws of dialectics determine?
16. What laws of dialectics are mentioned in the following
examples?
Examples
Laws of dialectics
To understand what good is, you need to
know what evil is.
Change of water from liquid to gaseous state
when boiled
The transformation of a bud into a flower
Growing a child into an adult
In marriage, someone always loves, and
someone allows himself to be loved
Change of seasons
Water wears away a stone
Father-Child Conflict
References
1. Acquette, D. Ontology. Central Problems of Philosophy,
Printed and bound by Biddles Ltd., Guildford and King’s Lynn,
2002. — 345 p.
2. Carrol, J.V., Marcosian, N. An Introduction to Metaphysics,
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University
Press, New York, 2010. — 279 p.
3. Loux, M.J., Crisp, T.M. Metaphysics. A Contemporary
Introduction. Loyola University of Chicago, 2010. — 373 p.
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2. SUBSTANTIAL DUALISM OF BODY AND MIND.
WHAT CAN'T ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE DO?
Content of the topic:
Being and consciousness. The problem of consciousness in
philosophy. Knowledge, consciousness, self-awareness. The nature
of reasoning. Language and reasoning.
After the topic completion students should:
1) know:
- existential and practical meaning of the issue of Being;
- main ontological models: subjective idealism, objective
idealism, materialism, solipsism;
- notion of metaphysics and core provisions of Aristotle's
metaphysics;
- principles of determinism;
- concept of "internal world of a human", its content, possible
approaches to structuring;
- relations between the concepts of "consciousness" and
"subjective reality";
- difference between the concepts of intelligence and
consciousness;
- main theoretical experiments in philosophy of consciousness;
- various approaches to structure of consciousness;
- properties of consciousness;
- main provisions of the doctrine about unconsciousness;
- meaning such terms and notions as: consciousness,
unconsciousness, ideal, the Self, individual and social consciousness,
archetype, identity;
2) able to:
- reproduce the studying material of philosophy in definitions,
judgements and conclusions;
- use philosophical and socio-political terminology;
- navigate in philosophical systems easily, understand their
basis;
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