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fragmentation of what had previously been very similar styles of
Figure.
dressing across the upper classes of Europe, and the development of
distinctive national styles. These
remained very different until a
counter-movement in the 17th to
18th centuries imposed similar styles
once again, mostly originating from
Ancien Régime France. Though the
rich usually led fashion, the
increasing affluence of early modern
Europe led to the bourgeoisie and
even peasants following trends at a
distance sometimes uncomfortably
close for the elites—a factor Braudel
regards as one of the main motors of
changing fashion.
Ten 16th century portraits of
German or Italian gentlemen may
show ten entirely different hats, and
at this period national differences
were at their most pronounced, as
Albrecht Dürer recorded in his actual
or composite contrast of Nuremberg
and Venetian fashions at the close of
the 15th century (illustration, right).
The "Spanish style" of the end of the
drawing contrasts a well
turned out bourgeoise from
Nuremberg (left) with her
counterpart from Venice.
The Venetian lady's high
chopines make her taller
Albrecht Dürer's
century began the move back to synchronicity among upper-class
Europeans, and after a struggle in the mid 17th century, French styles
decisively took over leadership, a process completed in the 18th
century.
Though colors and patterns of textiles changed from year to
year, the cut of a gentleman's coat and the length of his waistcoat, or
the pattern to which a lady's dress was cut changed more slowly.
Men's fashions largely derived from military models, and changes in
71
a European male silhouette are galvanized in theatres of European
war, where gentleman officers had opportunities to make notes of
foreign styles: an example is the "Steinkirk" cravat or necktie.
The pace of change picked up in the 1780s with the increased
publication of French engravings that showed the latest Paris styles;
though there had been distribution of dressed dolls from France as
patterns since the 16th century, and Abraham Bosse had produced
engravings of fashion from the 1620s. By 1800, all Western
Europeans were dressing alike (or thought they were): local variation
became first a sign of provincial culture, and then a badge of the
conservative peasant.
Although tailors and dressmakers were no doubt responsible
for many innovations before, and the textile industry certainly led
many trends, the history of fashion design is normally taken to date
from 1858, when the English-born Charles Frederick Worth opened
the first true haute couture house in Paris. The Haute house was the
name established by government for the fashion houses that met the
standards of industry. They had certain standards such as: hiring a
certain number of employees, show clothing at fashion shows, and
present a certain amount of patterns to costumers. This particular
house was a great deal to accomplish and most tailors and sewers
aspired to open one. Since then the professional designer has become
a progressively more dominant figure, despite the origins of many
fashions in street fashion. For women the flapper styles of the 1920s
marked the most major alteration in styles for several centuries, with
a drastic shortening of skirt lengths, and much looser-fitting clothes;
with occasional revivals of long skirts forms of the shorter length
have remained dominant ever since. Flappers also wore cloches,
which were sung fitting and covered the forehead. Her shoes had a
heel and some sort of buckle. The most important part was the
jewelry, such as: earrings and necklaces that had diamonds or gems.
The flapper gave a particular image as being seductive due to her
short length dress, which was form fitting, and the large amounts of
rich jewellery around her neck.
72
The four major current fashion capitals are acknowledged to be
Milan, New York City, Paris, and London. Fashion weeks are held in
these cities, where designers exhibit their new clothing collections to
audiences, and which are all headquarters to the greatest fashion
companies and are renowned for their major influence on global
fashion.
Modern Westerners have a wide choice available in the
selection of their clothes. What a person chooses to wear can reflect
that person's personality or likes. When people who have cultural
status start to wear new or different clothes a fashion trend may start.
People who like or respect them may start to wear clothes of a
similar style. This style is created by many fashion designers around
the world.
Fashions may vary considerably within a society according to
age, social class, generation, occupation, and geography as well as
over time. If, for example, an older person dresses according to the
fashion of young people, he or she may look ridiculous in the eyes of
both young and older people. The terms fashionista and fashion
victim refer to someone who slavishly follows current fashions.
One can regard the system of sporting various fashions as a
fashion language incorporating various fashion statements using a
grammar of fashion.
It is also very important to acknowledge Eastern fashion. In
recent years, a strong influence of Eastern fashion has entered the
fashion world and pop culture. Countries such as China, India, and
Pakistan have an enormous textiles industry; as well as; evolving
fashion that is closely related to their culture. This fashion has
always been an inspiration for fashion designers all over the world.
Each year, collections are released with Orient and Indian influences.
Celebrities have been seen supporting "bindis" and "saris" at red
carpet events.
(From Journal of Social History “East & West: Texties And Fashion
In Early Modern Europe” by Lemire, B., & Riello, G.)
73
Ответьте на вопросы:
What happened in the 14th century?
How can you characterize the fashion of the 14th century?
When did the French style decisively take over leadership?
Can you name four major current fashion capitals?
74
Text 3
FASHION REVIEW OF THE MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY
The Second World War created many radical changes in the
fashion industry. After the War, Paris's reputation as the global
center of fashion began to crumble, and off-the-peg and massmanufactured fashions became increasingly popular. A new youth
style emerged in the 1950s, changing the focus of fashion forever. As
the installation of central heating became more widespread, the age
of minimum-care garments began, and lighter textiles and,
eventually, synthetics, were introduced.
In the West, the traditional divide that had always existed
between high society and the working class became considered
unjustifiable. In particular, a new young generation wanted to reap
the benefits of a booming consumer society. Privilege became less
blatantly advertised than in the past and differences were more
glossed over. As the ancient European hierarchies were overturned,
the external marks of distinction faded. By the time the first rockets
were launched into space, Europe was more than ready to adopt a
quality ready-to-wear garment along American lines--something to
occupy the middle ground between off-the-peg and couture. This
need was all the more pressing because increases in overheads and
raw material costs were beginning to relegate handmade fashion to
the sidelines. Meanwhile, rapidly developing new technologies made
it increasingly easy to manufacture an ever-improving, high-quality
product.
Faced with the threat of a factory-made, fashion-based product,
Parisian haute couture mounted its defenses, but to little effect.
While the old world was taking its final bow, the changes in fashion
were one of the most visible manifestations of the general shake-up
in society. Before long, classes of women hitherto restricted to
inferior substitutes to haute couture would enjoy a greatly enlarged
freedom of choice. Dealing in far larger quantities, production cycles
were longer than those of couture workshops, which meant that
75
stylists planning their lines for the twice-yearly collections had to try
to guess more than a year in advance what their customers would
want. A new authority had taken over--that of the street, constituting
a further threat to the dictatorship of couture.
Many fashion houses closed during the occupation of Paris
during World War II, including the Maison Vionnet and the Maison
Chanel. Several designers, including Mainbocher, permanently
relocated to New York. In the enormous moral and intellectual reeducation program undertaken by the French state, couture was not
spared. In contrast to the stylish, liberated Parisienne, the Vichy
regime promoted the model of the wife and mother--a robust, athletic
young woman--a figure much more consistent with the new regime's
political agenda. Meanwhile, Germany was taking possession of over
half of what France produced, including high fashion, and was
considering relocating French haute couture to Berlin and Vienna,
neither of which had any significant fashion tradition. The archives
of the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture were seized, including, most
consequentially, the client list. The point of all this was to break up a
monopoly that supposedly threatened the dominance of the Third
Reich.
Due to difficult times, hemlines crept upward in both evening
wear and day wear, the latter of which was made using substitute
materials whenever possible. From 1940 onward, no more than four
meters (thirteen feet) of cloth was permitted to be used for a coat and
a little over one meter (three feet) for a blouse. No belt could be over
3 centimetres (one and a half inches) wide. Despite this, haute
couture did its best to keep its flag flying. Humor and frivolity
became a way of defying the occupying powers and couture
survived. Although some have argued that the reason it endured was
due to the patronage of the wives of wealthy Nazis, in actuality,
records reveal that, aside from the usual wealthy Parisiennes, it was
an eclectic mix of the wives of foreign ambassadors, clients from the
black market, and miscellaneous other patrons of the salons (among
whom German women were but a minority) that kept the doors open
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at fashion houses such as Jacques Fath, Maggy Rouff, Marcel
Rochas, Jeanne Lafaurie, Nina Ricci, and Madeleine Vramant.
During the Occupation, the only true way for a woman to
flaunt her extravagance or add color to a drab outfit was to wear a
hat. In this period, hats were often made of scraps of material that
would otherwise have been thrown away, including bits of paper and
wood shavings. Among the most innovative milliners of the time
were Pauline Adam, Simone Naudet, Rose Valois, and Le Monnier.
Paris's isolated situation in the 1940s enabled Americans to
fully utilize the ingenuity and creativity of their own designers.
During the Second World War, Vera Maxwell presented outfits
constituted of plain, simply cut co-ordinates, and introduced
innovations to men's work clothes. Bonnie Cashin transformed boots
into a major fashion accessory, and, in 1944, began the production of
original and imaginative sportswear. Claire McCardell, Anne Klein,
and Cashin formed a remarkable trio of women who laid the
foundations of American sportswear, ensuring that ready-to-wear
was not considered a mere second best, but an elegant and
comfortable way for modern women to dress.
In the War Years, the zoot suit (and in France the zazou suit)
became popular among young men.
Many actresses of the time, including Rita Hayworth,
Katharine Hepburn, and Marlene Dietrich, had a significant impact
on popular fashion.
The couturier Christian Dior created a tidal wave with his first
collection in February 1947. The collection contained dresses with
accentuated busts, tiny (or "wasp") waists, and extravagantly full
skirts, emphasizing the feminine hourglass figure in a manner very
similar to the style of the Belle Époque. The lavish use of fabric and
the feminine elegance of the designs appealed to post-war clientele,
and ensured Dior's meteoric rise to fame. The sheer sophistication of
the style incited the all-powerful editor of the American Harper's
Bazaar, Carmel Snow, to exclaim: 'This is a new look!'
(From http://en.wikipedia.org)
77
Ответьте на вопросы:
What happened with fashion industry after the World War II?
When did Christian Dior create his first collection?
What materials were used for the hats?
78
Text 4
Figure.
HISTORY OF FASHION 60s
Early 1960s. Fashions in the early years of the decade
reflected the elegance of the First Lady, Jacqueline Kennedy. In
addition to the pillbox hat which is
discussed in detail below, women
wore suits with short boxy jackets,
and over-sized buttons. Simple,
geometric dresses, known as shifts,
were also in style. For evening wear,
full-skirted gowns were worn; these
often had a low décolletage and had
close-fitting waists. For casual wear,
capri trousers were the fashion for
women and girls.
Stiletto-heeled shoes were
widely popular. As the suits drifted
away from pale, toned shades,
menswear was now bright and
colorful. It included frills and cravats,
American First
Lady Jacqueline Kennedy
in the iconic pink Chanel
suit and matching pillbox
hat on 22 November 1963
wide ties and trouser straps, leather
boots and even collarless jackets.
Ties were worn even five inches
wide, with crazy prints, stripes and
patterns. Casual dress consisted of
plaid button down shirts with
comfortable slacks or skirts.
Mid-1960s. After designer Mary Quant introduced the mini-
skirt in 1964, fashions of the 1960s were changed forever. The mini
skirt was eventually to be worn by nearly every stylish young female
in the western world and push out the longer skirt lengths that were
worn before.
79
The mini dress was usually A-line in shape or a sleeveless
shift. In 1964, French designer Andre Courreges introduced the
"space look", with trouser suits, white boots, goggles, and boxshaped dresses whose skirts soared three inches above the knee.
These were mainly designed in fluorescent colours and shiny fabrics
such as PVC and sequins.
The leaders of mid-1960s style were the British. The Mods
(short for Modernists) were characterized by their choice of style
different from the 1950s and adopted new fads that would be
imitated by many young people. As the Mods strongly influenced the
fashion in London, 1960s fashion in general set the mode for the rest
of the century as it became marketed mainly to young people. Mods
formed their own way of life creating television shows and
magazines that focused directly on the lifestyles of Mods. British
rock bands such as The Who, The Small Faces, and The Kinks
emerged from the Mod subculture. The Mods were known for the
Modern Jazz they listened to as they showed their new styles off at
local cafes. They worked at the lower end of the work force, usually
nine to five jobs leaving time for clothes, music, and clubbing. It was
not until 1964 when the Modernists were truly recognized by the
public that women really were accepted in the group. Girls had short,
clean haircuts and often dressed in similar styles to the male Mods.
The Mods' lifestyle and musical tastes were the exact opposite of
their rival group known as the Rockers. The rockers liked 1950s
rock-and roll, wore black leather jackets, greased, pompadour
hairstyles, and rode motorbikes. The look of the Mods was classy;
they mimicked the clothing and hairstyles of high fashion designers
in France and Italy; opting for tailored suits, which were topped by
anoraks that became their trademark. They rode on scooters, usually
Vespas or Lambrettas. The Mods dress style was often called the
City Gent look. Shirts were slim, with a necessary button down collar
accompanied by slim fitted pants. Levi's were the only type of jeans
worn by Modernists. Flared trousers and bellbottoms led the way to
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