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9 Percutaneous Interventions inAdult Congenital Heart Disease
175
different ages with different anatomies and previ­ous palliative or corrective surgery. More disease- specic tools are also available, such as the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientic Research Academic Medical Centre (TNO-AZL) adult quality of life questionnaire (TAAQOL). The TAAQOL started as a generic Dutch health questionnaire and was further developed to focus on cardiac diseases, especially in the CHD eld (CHD-TAAQOL) [26]. This tool aims to identify impairment in different health components (motor and social functioning, sleep, pain, etc) and to capture, if present, the psychological effect of those limitations. It also assesses the changes in QoL after surgical and interventional procedures. Finally, the most comprehensive and holistic assessment tools involve open or semi-struc- tured interviews to capture information in a wide variety of domains [25]. Although open inter­views can potentially uncover important topics for patients that might have been excluded from more structured questionnaires, the comparison of these results across individuals and different populations is often very challenging.
The potential utility and pitfalls of each one of these QoL instruments in the setting of ACHD interventional procedures are discussed later in this chapter.
Methods
QoL Tools inACHD Interventions: Review ofExisting Literature
In order to review the relation between QoL and percutaneous interventions in ACHD, we con­ducted a scoping review of the literature in the following electronic databases: PubMed online libraries, Google Scholar, and ClinicalTrials.gov (search date 1st February 2020). Furthermore, we manually examined reference lists from all selected articles and reviews to identify addi­tional studies. Non-English language papers, for which an English translation was not available, were excluded.
As authors often use the terms ‘quality of life’, ‘health status’, ‘functional status’, ‘HRQoL’ and
‘well-being’ interchangeably, all studies using these terms were included. Nevertheless, we excluded all publications in which QoL was solely assessed using the NYHA functional class.
Results
Summary ofInterventions
PROMs, mainly as HRQoL measures, have been used in the assessment of three types of percuta­neous procedure:
• Percutaneous pulmonary valve implantation (PPVI)
• Percutaneous atrial septal defect (ASD) closure
• Percutaneous patent foramen ovale (PFO) closure
A description of the results obtained are described in the Table9.1.
Percutaneous Pulmonary Valve Implantation
Three studies on QoL after percutaneous pulmo­nary valve implantation were identied. In a pro­spective, single-centre study of patients receiving PPVI with Melody (n =56) or Sapien (n =3) valves, Muller and colleagues found that almost all 8 domains assessed in the SF-36 questionnaire improved at 6months following the procedure, accompanied by a signicant improvement in peak oxygen uptake on cardiopulmonary exer­cise testing [27]. The authors found the QoL improvement was disproportionately higher than the change in peak oxygen uptake, which the authors suggested could have been due to a favourable perception of the minimally invasive intervention when compared to their previous experience of open-heart surgery.
Hager etal. measured QoL both at 6months
and 5 years after PPVI using the EQ-5D QoL utility index and a visual analogue scale (VAS) [28]. Improvement in utility scores and VAS were
176
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percutaneous procedures.
Resuming normal life quickly
after procedure was greatly
valued
SF-36 domains, particularly in
physical domains
signicantly improved at
6months and 5years after
intervention
high levels of QoL after
intervention. Signicantly
better QoL reported by the
controls
All SF-36 domains similar to
age-matched controls after
procedure
A. Barradas-Pires et al.
symptoms after procedure,
particularly in patients
>40years
signicantly after the
procedure
All SF-36 domains similar to
age-matched controls after
procedure
Instrument(s)
used Matching variables Key ndings
Follow-up
(months)
Sex
(%
female)
N (int. /
control) Age
Patients happy with
Semi-
structured
30 3–6
[7–30]
10/– 17
Canadian reference
group
interview
29 0, 6 SF-36 General improvement in most
[17–30]
53/– 23
63/– 22±11 33 0, 6, 60 EQ-5D, VAS Utility indexes and VAS
27/27 69±6 63 12–84 TAAQOL Age, sex Patients reported high/very
72 28 SF-36 Age-adjusted
[60–86]
54/– 69
Great improvement in
(patient
symptoms)
30/– 49±17 53 1, 6, 12 MCQ
75/– 65±16 60 0, 12 SF-36 All SF-36 domains improved
economic status,
education level,
marital and
employment status
69/69 40±14 74 18 SF-36 Age, sex,
Case series,
Table 9.1 Studies using quality of life and patient reported outcome measures to assess the effectiveness of percutaneous procedures in adult congenital heart disease (ACHD)
cross-sectional
References Study design
etal. 2014
PPVI Andresen
Case series,
longitudinal
Case series,
Muller
etal.2014
Hager etal.
longitudinal
2018
Non-randomized,
Cohen etal.
Percutaneous
control study,
cross-sectional
2010
ASD closure
Retrospective chart
review and
prospective
Hanninen
etal. 2011
questionnaire,
cross-sectional
Case series,
longitudinal
Mangiaco
etal. 2013
Case series,
longitudinal
Case series,
Komar etal.
2014
Eren et a.
cross-sectional
2015
9 Percutaneous Interventions inAdult Congenital Heart Disease
quality of life after procedure,
with no signicant differences
with the control group
signicantly after the
procedure
All SF-36 domains similar to
age-matched controls after
procedure. Non-closure PFO
group had signicantly lower
scores than the closure group
and the matched controls
gender-matched
Swedish reference
group
TAAQOL Age Participants reported high
177
specied
89/60 54±12 58 Not
Non-randomized,
control study,
Cohen etal.
2010
34/– 46±10 59 0, 6 SF-36 All SF-36 domains improved
cross-sectional
Case series,
longitudinal
Evola etal.
2013
51±12 37 36–156 SF-36 Age- and
208/136/208
(ref.)
Case series,
cross-sectional
Mirzada
etal. 2018
Percutaneous
PFO closure
(post-stroke)
ASD, atrial septal defect; MCQ, multiple choice questions; PFO, patent foramen ovale; PPVI, percutaneous pulmonary valve implantation; VAS, visual analogue scale
178
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A. Barradas-Pires et al.
reported on both periods. The improvement in the utility indexes was related to the severity of right ventricular obstruction in those receiving PPVI for pulmonary stenosis. Nevertheless, improve­ment in pulmonary regurgitation after the proce­dure was not related to QoL improvement.
Through semi-structured interviews of patients and their next-of-kin at 3–6months fol­lowing PPVI, Andresen et al. were able to gar­ner the priorities of patients undergoing this procedure. Those interviewed emphasised the importance of regaining independence and tak­ing control of daily life following the interven­tion [29]. Compared to previous surgical management, patients reported the physical bur­den of the procedure as being “minimal”, and the next-of- kin highlighted the importance of a timely return to normal life following the procedure.
Percutaneous Atrial Septal Defect Closure
Most studies assessing QoL after percutaneous ASD closure have focused on patients over 60years of age. Cohen etal. reported that almost 80% of patients had a “good” or “very good” quality of life after ASD closure [30]. Nevertheless, when compared to age-matched controls, their QoL was still signicantly lower. QoL in these patients was associated with depres­sion and anxiety scores, but not with functional class. In a Canadian study that included older adults following both surgical and percutaneous ASD repair, patients achieved similar scores on SF-36 QoL questionnaires to age-matched con­trols [31], associated with an improvement in functional class. Komar etal. corroborated these results in a longitudinal study, assessing older adults at 12months following percutaneous ASD closure [32]. Patients reported a signicant improvement in all the SF-36 domains along with a signicant improvement in exercise capacity.
In younger patients who underwent ASD clo­sure, QoL scores after the procedure in the SF-36
were similar to the general population [33]. An Italian group described similar results, although the authors did not use a specic QoL instrument and chose to assess QoL based on functional class, physical capacity and symptoms [34].
Patient Foramen Ovale Closure (Post-Stroke)
A patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a common con­dition, affecting around one quarter of the gen­eral population [35]. It is not considered a congenital heart defect, but is often managed by CHD specialists, especially in rare cases when a PFO allows paradoxical emboli causing (other­wise cryptogenic) strokes in younger patients. A meta-analysis of observational studies has shown a stronger association of PFO with cryptogenic stroke in patients <55 years compared to older patients, particularly when atrial septal aneu­rysms are present [36]. PFO closure following a cerebrovascular event is often performed by CHD interventionalists, who have experience in the percutaneous closure of other intra-cardiac communications.
Cohen and colleagues were the rst authors to study the QoL implications of PFO closure, using the TAAQOL instrument [37]. Participants were divided into 2 age-groups and their responses were compared to age-matched controls. After PFO closure, the reported QoL was high in both age groups, with no difference to the matched controls. Optimism, estimated with a life orienta­tion test (LOT-R), was higher in patients than in the control group. Older age and nancial status were correlated to anxiety, depression and worse QoL. These three domains were highly inter­related, and negatively associated to optimism.
Evola et al. reported a signicant improve­ment in QoL, measured using the SF-36 ques­tionnaire, at 6 months after PFO closure [38]. This was largely attributed to an improvement in migraine symptoms. In a long term follow-up study, 3–12 years after PFO closure, Mirzada etal. reported a sustained improvement in QoL
9 Percutaneous Interventions inAdult Congenital Heart Disease
179
over time after the procedure [39]. Importantly, patients after PFO closure reported similar QoL metrics to a group of matched healthy adults, which was not the case for the non-closure group who described signicant impairment in their physical, vitality, and general health domains.
Discussion
QoL After Percutaneous Procedures inACHD
Surgical closure of atrial septal defects of pulmo­nary valve implantation have been the gold­standard in the ACHD eld for the last 50years. Nevertheless, percutaneous procedures have gained notoriety in the last three decades. In terms of QoL, longitudinal CHD studies reported a consistent improvement in different HRQoL domains after percutaneous intervention. These results contrast with a few studies of HRQoL after surgical intervention, where QoL was described as impaired compared to the general population [4042]. These difference seems more pronounced for motor domains in patients with complex anatomies [43]. In more simple proce­dures, such as ASD closure, a small study com­paring HRQoL after percutaneous versus surgical procedures showed that, although both groups improved their QoL, the patients in the percuta­neous intervention group reported better scores in some SF-46 dimensions than their surgical counterparts [44]. Shorter admissions and speedy recovery time can explain some of the differences reported, as the amount of physically disability after surgery is seen as a core determinant of poor health status. Patients especially mention the ability to resume their usual daily activities quickly as one of the main positive experiences of percutaneous interventions compared to their previous surgical experience. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that patients undergoing surgery are more likely to have more complex CHD, which, together with comorbidities and CHD-related complications, might also inuence their self-perceived QoL.
The Utility ofDierent Quality ofLife Tools intheSetting ofPercutaneous Procedures inAdult Congenital Heart Disease
Overall, studies assessing HRQoL around percu­taneous procedures in ACHD patients have used 3 main instruments: SF-36, EQ-5D and TAAQOL.Each tool aims to assess a different set of domains (Fig.9.2). The QoL instrument most frequently used in percutaneous interventions in ACHD was the SF-36 questionnaire, which is a generic assessment tool and also the most fre­quently used PROM in clinical trials worldwide [45]. It assesses health status using 36 items focused on 8 “health perception” domains: physi­cal functioning, social functioning, role limita­tions due to physical problems, role limitations due to emotional problems, mental health, vital­ity, pain, and general health perceptions. It has been used in a variety of populations and clinical scenarios, including ACHD [43]. Therefore, it is a good choice for enabling comparisons between clinical groups or with healthy controls. Nevertheless, extrapolating general QoL from the results of the SF-36 questionnaires requires caution, as this tool tends to link general health perceptions with “health-related disability”, when we know that patients with disabilities might still feel overall “healthy” [2]. Another common pitfall in the use of the SF-36 is report­ing a total score based on all 8 dimensions. Each questionnaire domains should be reported sepa­rately, and the overall score that is often calcu­lated using different algorithms is not standardised and has conceptual and methodological draw­backs [46, 47].
Another generic instrument used to assess QoL in ACHD patients after a pulmonary valve implantation was the EQ-5D.This HRQoL tool has been used for over 30years [48]. It is simpler than the SF-36 and developed to standardise the value of QoL associated with health. The EQ-5D instrument asks subjects to describe their health status in 5 specic domains (mobility, self-care, main activity, pain/discomfort and anxiety/ depression) and then requests an evaluation of
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A. Barradas-Pires et al.
SF-36
Physical functioning
Social functioning
Physical problems
Emotional Problems
Mental health
Pain
Vitality
General health perceptions
Fig. 9.2 Comparison of the domains included by the different tools used to investigate changes in quality of life (QoL) after percutaneous interventions in adult congenital heart disease (ACHD)
their “overall health status” using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). These components can be incorporated into one single index, facilitating comparison across different settings. As with the SF-36, however, this tool does not capture social or environmental domains, which are of interest in the ACHD population.
The third instrument used was the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientic Research Academic Medical Centre (TNO-AZL) adult quality of life questionnaire (TAAQOL). The TAAQOL was developed by Bruils etal. in 2001 as a generic HRQoL instrument [49, 50] and then adapted to the congenital cardiac setting by Kamphuis in 2004 under the name CHD­TAAQOL [26]. Since then, variations of this questionnaire have been validated in children, adolescents and adults with CHD.The TAAQOL
EQ-5D
Mobility, self-care, main
activity
Anxiety/depression
Pain/discomfort
Overall, the instruments used to assess QoL after percutaneous interventions rely on PROMs that are often generic, simplistic and focused on health-related domains, therefore, interpretations on overall QoL should be avoided. Most of these tools also lack the sensitivity required to detect changes in QoL over time or around an interven­tion. New tools designed for the ACHD population are needed to better detect and report such changes, but these will need to be tested and validated against established measures. When reporting PROMs, statements should be limited to the dimen­sions directly assessed by the instruments used. Sweeping statements, such as that “QoL of patients with ACHD improves” after a given procedure, based only on the results of a single questionnaire, fail to recognise QoL as a broad, multidimensional concept and should be discouraged.
CHD-TaaQol
Symptoms
Worries
Impact Cardiac
Surveillance
tool has been used in 2 studies in this review, assessing patients following ASD and PFO clo­sure [30, 37]. This tool focuses on three main domains: symptoms, worries, and the impact of
Comparison ofPROMs withOther Established Health Outcomes
cardiac surveillance on QoL. The nal score ranges from 1 to 12 and, contrary to previous tools, higher scores describe a worse HRQoL.This tool is original for 2 reasons: rstly, it is designed to capture the perceptions and emo­tional reactions to illness; secondly, it aims to assesse the changes in a patient’s QoL after sur­gery or other intervention. Both are particularly relevant to ACHD patients.
An association between functional class and QoL has previously been documented in ACHD patients, including those with cyanotic CHD or following a surgical procedure [42, 44]. Nevertheless, most studies assessing QoL in ACHD patients following percutaneous proce­dures failed to demonstrate a denitive link between QoL and more traditional outcome indi-
9 Percutaneous Interventions inAdult Congenital Heart Disease
181
cators, such as peak oxygen uptake, functional class or survival [51].
The association between QoL indicators and mortality was not addressed in any of the studies on percutaneous procedures in ACHD. In other set­tings, such as in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with CHD, negative changes in QoL measured by SF-36 questionnaires were identied as a mortality predictor, along with functional class, 6-min walk distance or BNP lev­els [52]. Favoccia etal. found that QoL measured by Emphasis-10 questionnaires in patients with pulmonary hypertension, including those with pul­monary arterial hypertension associated with CHD, was an independent predictor of mortality in addi­tion to functional class or age [53]. In congenital patients with cyanosis or Eisenmenger syndrome, iron replacement therapy was also associated with an improvement in QoL [54].
This literature review has highlighted the sig­nicant heterogeneity in terms of methodology and population between studies measuring PROMs, including QoL, which is a signicant barrier when attempting to compare or pool data (Table 9.2). Even within specic ACHD cohorts of patients undergoing the same procedure, study
Table 9.2 Sources of heterogeneity encountered when measuring patient reported outcomes (PROMs) and qual­ity of life (QoL) in adult congenital heart disease (ACHD) patients undergoing percutaneous interventions
Domain Sources of heterogeneity ACHD patients Wide age range
Anatomy and congenital heart disease complexity Pre-procedural symptoms
Procedure being assessed First procedure, repeated
or combined
Outcome measure Choice of patient-reported
outcome Denition of QoL
Scope, heterogeneity and applicability of QoL instruments/PROMs
Heterogeneity of study design
Format of instrument (short questionnaire vs. semi-structured interview) QoL domains assessed Applicability to the ACHD population Reporting of results
Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional Use and choice of control group
designs were heterogeneous, for example: longi­tudinal (such as pre- and post-procedural changes in QoL) versus cross-sectional; different control groups (local community versus general popula­tion or standardised QoL indices), etc. A wide range of QoL instruments were also used, from generic versus disease-specic, and directed questionnaires versus open-interview structures.
In order to expand and improve the use of HRQoL tools in daily practice worldwide, clini­cal guidelines and consensus statements should include QoL domains as desirable endpoints in cardiovascular studies and encourage its use in combination with more classical outcomes. This has been done for interventional procedures such as transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) and coronary interventions, where academic research consortiums have included QoL end­points and provided guidance about tools and their interpretation [55, 56]. In the case of ACHD catheter interventions, to the best of our knowl­edge, no such guidance is yet available.
Concluding Remarks
QoL tools should be used more often in ACHD research and clinical practice and should comple­ment functional status, imaging data and objec­tive measures of exercise capacity (Fig. 9.3). PROMs associate with an intervention should be interpreted in a broader context, taking into account the patients’ characteristics and all the factors that may inuence their perception regarding the procedure’s benets and drawbacks (including age, CHD complexity and the pres­ence of anxiety or depression).
Patient preference is fundamental in the man­agement choices we make. The published ACHD QoL literature lacks standardisation in concepts and methodology, making it very difcult to com­pile and interpret outcomes. Standardisation is crucial in order to speak the same language and be able to compare information between different centres, diseases, ages etc. Moreover, particularly in the ACHD eld where patients are followed throughout different stages of their lives, an effort to shift from health-related quality of life instru­ments to more comprehensive tools should be
182
Conclusions
1)
Quality of life (QoL) tools should be used in clinical practice as complement to functional status, imaging
data and objective measures of exercise capacity.
2)
assessment should incorporate social, environmental, and physical and mental characteristics.
3)
QoL after important treatment landmarks, such as surgery or interventional procedures, but also across different stages of patients’ lives. The definition of QoL should, therefore, retain a dynamic component.
4)
Standardisation of QoL tools in research is key to compile and interpret outcomes from different studies.
5)
interventions. Predictors of poor QoL after percutaneous interventions are scarce in ACHD research. Nevertheless, some studies have identified low educational or financial status, presence of symptoms and coexistence of depression / anxiety as poor predictors of QoL after procedures.
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QoL in Adult Congenital Heart Disease (ACHD) extends beyond health-related dimensions, and its
Patient-reported outcome measures in ACHD research should be able to capture the changes in
Studies in health related QoL in ACHD suggest an improvement in some QoL domains after catheter
A. Barradas-Pires et al.
Fig. 9.3 Highlighted conclusions
made, so other signicant QoL domains can be adequality captured and analysed in research, and then incorporated in our daily practice.
6. Baumgartner H.Geriatric congenital heart disease: a new challenge in the care of adults with congenital heart disease? Eur Heart J. 2014;35:683–5. https://
doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht358.
7. Briston DA, Bradley EA, Sabanayagam A, Zaidi AN. Health Care Costs for Adults With Congenital Heart Disease in the United States 2002 to 2012. Am
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