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72
HRQOL
instrument
used
signicantly better in the
younger group, whereas
Main ndings related to
HRQOL
Follow-up
RAND-36 Physical functioning was
completion
rate (%)
emotional health scores
84%
octogenarians and
20±18in the
younger group
were better in the
octogenarian group
M. K. H. Tan et al.
(continued)
Pre-op
No 17±16months in
HRQOL
assessment Follow-up period
Octogenarians average
age was 85years (range
80–91). The younger
group had an average age
Westchester
Medical
Centre,
NewYork,
Comparison of outcomes
following type A
dissection repair in
Study intent and number
of patients Surgical centre Patient characteristics
octogenarians (n=21)
of 60years (range
30–79years)
The two groups had
similar preoperative
characteristics, but the
younger group
experienced signicantly
more malperfusion and
USA
and those aged less than
80 (n=101)
Procedures consisted of
71 ascending/hemiarch
replacements, 22 Bentall
procedures, 2 David
procedures, 4 Wheat
procedures and 2 total
had a signicantly longer
DHCA time
arch replacements
Table 4.7
Author, year of
publication,
study period and
study type
Tang etal. 2013
[1]
2005–2011
Retrospective
cohort study
4 Thoracic Aortic Surgery
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Main ndings related to HRQOL
averaged HRQoL score was signicantly
decreased in patients with DHCA between
HRQOL
instrument used
Follow-up
completion rate
(%)
86.7%
20–34min and in >35min
Averaged HRQoL score was signicantly better
with the use of ACP, independent of the
duration of DHCA
ACP, however, improved averaged HRQoL
score at each time period and allowed DHCA
to be extended up to 30min, without
impairment in mid-term HRQoL
DHCA >20min resulted in signicantly lower
HRQoL than age and gender-matched standard
population in the domains of physical
functioning, social functioning and vitality
HRQoL was superior in patients with thoracic
aortic aneurysms as compared with patients
with acute type A dissections, but this is likely
to be related to the DHCA time and not the
type of the disease
were similar in all three groups and comparable
to age- and sex-matched standard population
Average HRQoL after a DHCA time of
30–50min with CCP through the RSA was
signicantly higher than with selective
ACP—post-op HRQoL without CCP in this
time group was signicantly lower than a
standardized population
HR QoL limitations were mainly in the aspects
of vitality and social and physical function
Eight patients (20.2%) in the CCP group
reported neurological symptoms of the right
arm after cannulation of the right axillary
artery, of which two had conrmed
plexus-related dysfunction of the right arm
80.0%
73
(continued)
Pre-op
HRQOL
assessment Follow-up period
No 2.4±1.2years SF-36 Compared to patients with DHCA of <20min,
Mean age of patients was
60.8±13.3years of whom
74% were male
167 patients had type A
dissection and 187 had an
aortic aneurysm
University
Hospital Berne,
Switzerland
Study intent and number of
patients Surgical centre Patient characteristics
Assessment of the impact of
DHCA duration and the
potential impact of ACP on
mid-term QoL
Total of 363 patients
undergoing surgery of the
thoracic aorta with
DHCA.These were split in to
DHCA times of <20min,
20–29min and≥30min for
analysis
ACP was used in 41 (11.3%) of
cases
No 2.4±1.2years SF-36 Average HRQoL scores up to 20min of DHCA
Pre-operative
characteristics were
“similar” in all three
groups, although there
were signicantly more
type A dissections in the
group receiving CCP
University
Hospital Berne,
Switzerland
To assess the impact of
continuous cerebral perfusion
via the RSA on immediate
outcome and QoL
Total of 567 consecutive
patients who underwent surgery
of the aortic arch using
DHCA.Divided in to three
groups based on cerebral
protection: 1) 387 patients had
DHCA alone with pentothal, 2)
91 had selective ACP and
pentothal and 3) 89 had CCP
through the RSA and pentothal
Immer etal.
2008 [55]
1994 onwards
Retrospective
Author, year of
publication, study
period and study
type
Immer etal.
2004 [54]
1994–2002
Retrospective
Table 4.8 Studies observing neurological outcomes and cerebral protection
cohort study
cohort study
74
HRQOL
instrument used
Follow-up
Main ndings related to HRQOL
HRQoL after surgery with selective ACP was
“excellent in the long-term”
completion rate
(%)
SIP
questionnaire
82%
months
impaired HRQoL in all aspects except that of
bodily pain when compared to those with no
post-operative TND
In patients which did not suffer from TND, the
results of the SF-36in all eight domains were
within the reported range of age- and
gender-matched population
82%
M. K. H. Tan et al.
Pre-op
HRQOL
assessment Follow-up period
No 28 (9–109)
Mean age of
59±12years, 71% male
65% of patients had acute
aortic dissection and 34%
University
Medical Centre
Regensburg,
Germany
Study intent and number of
patients Surgical centre Patient characteristics
Quality of life assessment of 79
undergoing surgery of the
ascending aorta and arch with
DHCA and selective ACP
with aortic aneurysm
71% of operations were
performed on an emergent
basis
11% of patients underwent
a redo procedure
Arterial cannulation was
via the central aorta in
All patients underwent
replacement of the ascending
aorta, combined with hemiarch
(n=33) or total (n=46) arch
replacement
No 27±14months SF-36 Patients with TND showed a signicantly
57%, the femoral in 19%
and the RSA in 24%
290 (31.9%) patients had
type A dissection and 617
had an aortic aneurysm.
In 547 patients (60.3%)
the distal anastomosis was
University
Hospital Berne,
Switzerland
Assessment of the inuence of
TND (confusion, delirium and
agitation with a GCS of <13)
on short- and long-term
outcome in 917 patients who
performed using DHCA
underwent surgery of the
ascending aorta and proximal
arch
Author, year of
Table 4.8 (continued)
publication, study
period and study
type
Kobuch etal.
2012 [56]
1998–2007
Retrospective
cohort
Krähenbühl
etal. 2008 [57]
1996–2005
Retrospective
cohort
HRQOL
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instrument used
Follow-up
4 Thoracic Aortic Surgery
Main ndings related to HRQOL
duration of DHCA up to 20min and were
within the reported range of age- and
sex-matched standard population
For DHCA >40min, bilateral perfusion
provided superior midterm HRQoL results and
these patients still remained comparable to an
completion rate
(%)
100%
age- and gender-matched standard population
comparable to national reference population
with chronic health conditions
RAND-36 All scores were similar between groups and
88% for
thoracic aortic
surgery
59% for
coronary artery
surgery
(range 5–8) for
thoracic aortic
surgery group
Median 6.3years
(range 4.6–7.8)
for coronary
artery surgery
group
75
Pre-op
HRQOL
assessment Follow-up period
No 23.2±15months SF-36 HRQoL was similar in all four groups for
Mean age was
64±10.6years and 69.8%
were male. 60.2% were
operated on electively and
University
Hospital Berne,
Switzerland
Study intent and number of
patients Surgical centre Patient characteristics
Comparison of three different
cerebral protection techniques
on QoL: DHCA alone (n=12),
SACP (n=133) vs. RAACP
38% presented with type
A dissection
Patient characteristics
were similar in all groups.
Bentall was performed in
43.5% and supracoronary
repair in 56.5%
Patients receiving RAACP
(n=118) vs. RAACCP (n=29)
Total of 292 patients included
who underwent surgery of the
thoracic aorta using DHCA
and RAACCP comprised
of signicantly more
emergency cases with
signicantly longer
DHCA and CPB duration
No Median 6.8years
Thoracic aortic surgery:
• Median age 62years old
(range 30–75)
• 73% male
Coronary artery surgery:
• Median age 64years old
(range 37–80)
• 81% male
Those in the coronary
Helsinki
University
Hospital,
Helsinki,
Finland
Comparison between patients
undergoing thoracic aortic
surgery with hypothermic
circulatory arrest (n=30) vs.
patients undergoing coronary
artery surgery without
hypothermic circulatory arrest
(n=31)
artery surgery group had
higher rates of smoking
history and diabetes, but
had a lower EuroSCORE I
Author, year of
publication, study
period and study
type
Krähenbühl
etal. 2010 [58]
2004–2007
Retrospective
cohort
Stewart etal.
2018 [59]
2007–2011
Prospective
cohort
76
M. K. H. Tan et al.
ods and post-operative neurological injury predicted impaired HRQoL. Advanced cerebral
protection methods (e.g. bilateral selective antegrade cerebral perfusion) improved HRQoL at
follow-up.
Krähenbühl et al. looked at the impact of
temporary neurological dysfunction (TND;
confusion, delirium or agitation) on HRQoL
post-operatively. In 917 patients undergoing
proximal aortic surgery, 9.8% of patients suffered from TND which resulted in signicant
impairment of HRQoL in all domains excluding bodily pain. Patients without TND were
shown to have comparable HRQoL to the normal population. TND was predicted by older
age, pre-operative haemodynamic compromise
and the use of DHCA [57]. Prolonged use of
DHCA was also associated with poor postoperative HRQoL in two other studies [54, 55],
but this was mitigated with various DHCA protection strategies (i.e. selective antegrade cerebral perfusion [54, 58], right axillary antegrade
cerebral perfusion [58], right axillary perfusion with an additional catheter in the left
carotid artery [58], right subclavian artery continuous cerebral perfusion [55]). Immer etal.
for example showed that in 363 consecutive
patients having proximal aortic surgery and
prolonged DHCA (dened as >20 min),
HRQoL at follow-up was impaired compared
to a normal population [54]. However, this
impairment was not seen when the cerebral
perfusion strategies were applied in further
studies, with superior mid-term HRQoL which
was comparable to the normal population associated with the use of right subclavian cannulation (with continuous and bilateral cerebral
protection) [55, 58].
These ndings relating neurological outcomes and cerebral protection to mid- and
long-term HRQoL are not surprising. Animal
models have shown that 11% of brain activity
still remains even when temperatures are
decreased to 8 °C, suggesting that if DHCA
alone is used, there still remains the possibility
of incomplete protection and consequent diffuse brain injury [54]. With the addition of ACP
in other animal models, reduced apoptosis in
the hippocampus and preserved oxygen tension
has been reported [60–62]. While the current
evidence suggests that right axillary cannulation with bilateral continuous cerebral protection appears to be the most effective means of
cerebral protection, this must be considered in
the context of a high incidence of right arm dysfunction (up to 20%) and brachial plexus injury
(estimated around 2%) [55].
Discussion
HRQoL has become increasingly important in
thoracic aortic surgery, with increased appreciation of the differences between patient-centred outcomes and traditional surgical
perceptions of what is important [63]. This was
recently recognised in a review describing key
aspects of HRQoL and patient-reported outcomes measures, including patients being the
best judges of the impact of interventions on
their symptoms and daily function, provision
of a shared clinical decision-making framework, and in the improvement of quality and
safety [64]. This is particularly important in
patients with a high pre-operative HRQoL,
with studies in related elds of cardiac surgery
[65, 66] showing ceiling effects, suggesting
that patients with good HRQoL have little to
gain but much to lose with respect to their
quality of life.
This chapter has outlined the literature
regarding HRQoL after interventions on the
thoracic aorta. Most studies, as detailed above,
conrm that HRQoL after major surgery (both
elective and emergency interventions, as well
as in elderly patients) is acceptable and is often
comparable to that of a general population. A
summary framework shows contributory factors that may impair HRQoL in thoracic aortic
surgery (Fig.4.1). This analysis must however
be interpreted with recognition of the limitations detailed below. Suggestions for future
research are also discussed further in this
section.
4 Thoracic Aortic Surgery
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Predictors of Impaired HRQoL in Thoracic Aortic Surgery
Proximal Aorta Thoracoabdominal Aorta Endovascular Interventions Cerebral Protection
77
Aortic Root Replacement
• Non-aortic valve sparing
aortic root replacement
• Use of mechanical aortic
valve
Other Proximal Aortic
Operations
• Emergency surgery
• DHCA use
• Increasing age
• Long hospital stay
Type A Dissection Repair
• More aggressive
procedure (ascending
aorta + aortic arch repair)
• Patient characteristics: • Fenestrated branched
• Increasing age
• Female gender
• Peripheral vascular
disease
• Greater burden of
baseline co morbidities
• Descending aorta and
thoracoabdominal aortic
operations
• Any reoperation
Fig. 4.1 Predictors of poor HRQoL in aortic surgery
Study Limitations
In the current literature, majority of studies are
retrospective and only one contains an element of
randomisation. Differences in baseline demographics and patient characteristics, as highlighted in the tables where identied, is largely
due to this observational design in most studies
and the lack of experimental methodology. As
previously mentioned, patients with thoracic aortic disease tend to have a signicant number of
co-morbidities, and the lack of randomisation
leads to heterogeneity seen in the current literature. Additionally, while the overall follow-up
completion rate was generally high, only two
studies reported baseline HRQoL.Together with
the lack of uniformity of instruments used and
the variety of timepoints used for follow-up,
comparisons of outcomes was challenging. This
may be improved with initiatives promoting preand post-intervention HRQoL collection—the
United Kingdom’s Department of Health has
started routine collection for a selection of operations which unfortunately does not include thoracic aorta surgery [7], while the Netherlands has
started a national initiative termed ‘Meetbaar
Beter’ to encourage cardiothoracic centres to collect pre- and post-operative HRQoL [67]. Finally,
bias may be an issue given that patients with poor
HRQoL are unlikely to respond to surveys, lead-
EVAR use in
thoracoabdominal aortic
aneurysms (when
compared to pararenal
aneurysms)
• Prolonged DHCA periods
• Post-operative
neurological injury
ing to falsely elevated HRQoL results. Institutions
may also contribute to the bias with increased
efforts to publish and present positive ndings—
notably, a number of studies in the literature originate from the same institution.
Suggestions forFuture Research
HRQoL outcomes are not a new reporting instrument in the literature—one of the rst studies to
publish on these outcomes was available over
40years ago [68]. Despite this, few randomised
controlled trials report such outcomes, with the
current literature reviewed in this chapter still
only including one randomised trial [11]. Future
research into thoracic aortic interventions should
include elements of randomisation. As for instrument selection, while most studies use generic
instruments (e.g. SF-36, RAND-36) that are frequently used in all areas of medicine and surgery,
there is still no consensus as to which instrument
is best for data collection in aortic surgery.
Additionally, while a number of disease-specic
instruments were used in the current studies,
future data collection would be facilitated by a
standardised aortic specic common instrument.
This standardisation should also be extended to a
uniform reporting standard of baseline and postoperative (at predened timepoints) HRQoL
78
Fig. 4.2 Conclusions
regarding HRQoL after
aortic surgery
M. K. H. Tan et al.
Chapter Conclusions:
• HRQoL after aortic surgery is satisfactory
• Even in elderly and high-risk populations, HRQoL is comparable to healthy age and sex-matched individuals
• Aortic surgery should aim to preserve, if not improve, HRQoL especially in
elective scenarios where patients are largely asymptomatic
• Available literature on HRQoL in aortic surgery is currently lacking, especially
with regards to randomised trials
• Focusing on HRQoL outcomes in future trials will be required to allow for
evidence-based policymaking and resource allocation
assessment. This would also be further improved
by a consensus set of outcome measures in thoracic aortic surgery such as those already available through the International Consortium for
Health Outcomes Measurement for coronary
artery disease and heart failure [69]. Innovation
may take the form of correlating HRQoL to
patient activity as measured by wrist-worn accelerometers [70, 71] or biomechanical parameters
such as aortic blood ow, shear wall stress and
pulse wave velocity [72–74].
Conclusions
HRQoL after aortic surgery is generally satisfactory and found to be at similar levels (even in
elderly and high-risk populations) to healthy ageand sex-matched patients (Fig. 4.2). Baseline
characteristics of patients with descending thoracic aortic disease tend to be poorer, which may
be secondary to the multitude of co-morbidities
they usually have. Patients undergoing emergency operations for type A dissections also often
appear to have poorer HRQoL when compared to
matched populations. Aortic surgery should aim
to preserve or improve HRQoL, especially in
elective operations where a good number of
patients are asymptomatic, and patients will need
to be made aware of HRQoL outcomes as part of
the consent process. Despite increasing interest
in HRQoL as an outcome measure in aortic surgery, there is still only one prospective randomised trial in the current literature which
studies HRQoL outcomes. Further trials with a
focus on HRQoL outcomes will need to be performed to advise evidence-based aortic policymaking and resource allocation in the future.
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