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9 Patient Comorbidities Complicating aHernia Repair
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radiology in the diagnosis of occult inguinal hernia. Surg Endosc. 2013;27(1):11–8.
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standardized preadmission showering regimen to achieve maximal antiseptic skin sur­face concentrations of chlorhexidine gluconate, 4%, in surgical patients. JAMA Surg. 2015;150(11):1027–33.
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antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of surgical site infection after open mesh-plug hernia repair. Am J Surg. 2014;207(4):476–84.
54. Boonchan T, Wilasrusmee C, McEvoy M, Attia J, Thakkinstian A.Network meta-analysis of
antibiotic prophylaxis for prevention of surgical-site infection after groin hernia surgery. Br J Surg. 2017;104(2):e106–17.
55. Erdas E, Medas F, Pisano G, Nicolosi A, Calò PG.Antibiotic prophylaxis for open mesh repair
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56. Köckerling F, Bittner R, Jacob D, Schug-Pass C, Laurenz C, Adolf D, etal. Do we need antibi-
otic prophylaxis in endoscopic inguinal hernia repair? Results of the Herniamed registry. Surg Endosc. 2015;29(12):3741–9.
57. Rios A, Rodriguez J, Munitiz V, Alcaraz P, Flores PD, Parrilla P.Antibiotic prophylaxis in
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58. Ousley J, Baucom RB, Stewart MK, Phillips SE, Holzman MD, Ehrenfeld JM, etal. Previous
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection independent of body site increases odds of surgical site infection after ventral hernia repair. J Am Coll Surg. 2015;221(2):470–7.
59. Baucom RB, Ousley J, Oyefule OO, Stewart MK, Phillips SE, Browman KK, etal. Evaluation
of long-term surgical site occurrences in ventral hernia repair: implications of preoperative site independent MRSA infection. Hernia. 2016;20(5):701–10.
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R, etal. Preventing surgical-site infections in nasal carriers of Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(1):9–17.
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62. Fayezizadeh M, Petro CC, Rosen MJ, Novitsky YW.Enhanced recovery after surgery pathway
for abdominal wall reconstruction: pilot study and preliminary outcomes. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2014;134(4S–2):151S–9S.
D. T. K. Huynh and O. M. Ghanem
9 Patient Comorbidities Complicating aHernia Repair
63. Majumder A, Fayezizadeh M, Neupane R, Elliott HL, Novitsky YW.Benets of multimodal
enhanced recovery pathway in patients undergoing open ventral hernia repair. J Am Coll Surg. 2016;222(6):1106–15.
64. Jensen KK, Brondum TL, Harling H, Kehlet H, Jorgensen LN.Enhanced recovery after giant
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65. Warren JA, Stoddard C, Hunter AL, Horton AJ, Atwood C, Ewing JA, et al. Effect of mul-
timodal analgesia on opioid use after open ventral hernia repair. J Gastrointest Surg. 2017;21(10):1692–9.
123
Enhanced Recovery inAbdominal Hernia Repair
AndrewS.Wright andRebeccaP.Petersen
“A surgeon can do more for the community by operating on hernia cases and seeing that [their] recurrence rate is low than [they] can by operating on cases of malignant disease.”
—Sir Cecil Wakely, 1948
While there is no question that operative technique is important in achieving good patient outcomes, increasing evidence suggests that a coordinated and systematic approach to pre-operative patient preparation, intra-operative management, and post-operative care may be an even more critical contributor. Collectively, this approach has come to be known as “Enhanced Recovery After Surgery,” or ERAS, and represents a multidisciplinary approach to patient selection, pre-operative nutri­tion and optimization, intra-operative uid management, advanced pain control, and early diet and mobilization. Originated and best studied in colorectal surgery, ERAS protocols have been shown to reduce length of stay [1], reduce the rates of post­operative complications by up to 40% [2], and signicantly reduce costs [3]. In fact, by one estimate, every dollar spent in implementation of ERAS protocols results in a $3.8 savings [4]. ERAS protocols are now being adapted and extended to other types of surgery including bariatric [5], hepatobiliary [6], gynecologic [7], and recently to hernia surgery [810].
Although many of the principles of enhanced recovery come from the colorectal literature, early results in extending these principles to hernia have been very encouraging. Novitsky’s group at Case Comprehensive Hernia Center have recently published their early results after implementation of an ERAS protocol in abdomi­nal wall reconstruction [9] with a 1.8-day reduction in time to regular diet, a
10
A. S. Wright (*) · R. P. Petersen University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, WA, USA e-mail: Awright2@uw.edu; rp9@uw.edu
© Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) 2019 S. S. Davis Jr. et al. (eds.), The SAGES Manual of Hernia Surgery,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78411-3_10
125
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A. S. Wright and R. P. Petersen
reduction in length of stay from 6.1 to 4.0 days, and signicantly reduced 90-day readmission rate, from 16 to 4%.
At the UW Medicine Hernia Center, we have implemented a similar protocol, but for all patients requiring inpatient admission following hernia repair—including laparoscopic and open hernia repair as well as in more complex abdominal wall reconstruction. Our current ERAS protocol is shown in Appendix 1, with key com­ponents as shown in Table 10.1. In our more heterogeneous population, we have seen signicant improvements in length of stay and readmission (Table 10.2). Importantly, this applies to both our laparoscopic and our open hernia population,
Table 10.1 Elements of a typical hernia ERAS Pathway
Table 10.2 Results of ERAS implementation at the UW Hernia Center
# cases LOS ICU LOS Direct cost
All Cases
Open Cases
Lap Cases
Pre-ERAS 138 5.21 0.52 $13,875 7.25 Post-ERAS 264 4.22 0.16 $11,917 5.30 %
Improvement Pre-ERAS 116 5.31 0.57 $14,387 6.89 Post-ERAS 204 4.60 0.17 $12,372 6.86 %
Improvement Pre-ERAS 22 4.75 0.22 $12,358 9.00 Post-ERAS 60 2.90 0.13 $10,729 0.00 %
Improvement
Pre-operative
Assessment of modiable risk factors Patient optimization Smoking cessation Immunonutrition Weight loss Patient education
Peri-operative
Minimized pre-op fasting Pre-op carbohydrate load Restricted IV uid Advanced pain control (epidural or TAP block) Glycemic control Antiemetic prophylaxis Multimodal, opioid-sparing analgesia
Post-operative
Early nutrition Early mobilization Daily care maps Dened discharge criteria
19.22% 14.11% 14.10% 26.90
13.20% 69.40% 14.00% 3.00
39.00% 41.30% 13.10% 100.00
30-day readmission (%)
10 Enhanced Recovery inAbdominal Hernia Repair
127
and was effective across two hospitals in our system with different cultures, admin­istration, and IT infrastructure. Although the ERAS pathway was implemented with a goal of improving patient outcomes, a benecial side effect has been signicant cost savings, with over $500,000 saved annually after implementation.
This chapter is designed as a brief introduction to the concepts and principles of ERAS programs, as well as an overview of implementation and application in the realm of hernia surgery. SAGES and the ERAS Society have recently published a Manual of Enhanced Recovery Programs in Gastrointestinal Surgery which explores many of these topics in depth, and which is an excellent resource for surgeons or others interested in starting or rening an ERAS program. Additionally, SAGES has developed the SAGES SMART™ program to help disseminate information about enhanced recovery programs, with further information available at https://www.
sages.org/smart-enhanced-recovery-program/ [11].

Pre-operative Phase

Success in hernia surgery starts at the rst clinic visit, with proper patient selection and pre-operative optimization. Some risk factors (size and location of hernia, prior operations, etc.) are not modiable but may affect decision-making about whether to offer repair or may affect operative planning (surgical approach, use or type of mesh). These considerations are out of the scope of this chapter, but are addressed elsewhere in this textbook. ERAS pathways concentrate on identication of modi­able risk factors that have been shown to affect patient outcomes.
Smoking has been demonstrated to affect post-operative complication rates across almost all types of operations. In a recent analysis of the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP), Schmid etal. showed smokers have a higher risk of overall pulmonary, wound, and septic/ shock complications [12]. Although this paper did not specically look at hernia operations, the effect of smoking on wound dehiscence and other wound complica­tions is well described. Smoking increases the risk of hernia formation after abdom­inal surgery by 2×, the risk of wound dehiscence by almost 80%, and the risk of all wound complications by 227% [13].
In the past, the impact of pre-operative smoking cessation has been controversial, with some arguing that short-term cessation may not be sufcient to affect patient outcomes [14]. A meta-analysis of 25 studies has shown that smoking cessation signicantly reduces risks of both respiratory and wound complications although the timing of cessation is important [15]. With respiratory complications, cessation less than 4 weeks prior to surgery had no benet while cessation >4 weeks reduced the relative risk (RR) of all complications to 0.77 and with even greater benet with >8 weeks smoking cessation (RR 0.53). Based on this data, we recommend that no elective hernia operations be performed in active smokers, and in our program we require 8 weeks of abstinence prior to surgery. Compliance is checked with a urine cotinine screening test the week prior to surgery.
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A. S. Wright and R. P. Petersen
Obesity is a risk factor for both wound complications [16] and recurrence [17,
18] after hernia repair. This is addressed more fully in the previous chapter. In the
context of ERAS protocols, the importance is recognition of patients with obesity as a modiable risk factor. Rosen etal. have published their results with a medically supervised program for pre-operative weight loss prior to surgery [19]. Out of 25 patients, 24 successfully lost weight with a mean weight loss of 24kg and a 9-point reduction in BMI.Of these, 22 maintained weight loss for a median follow-up of 18 months. In our program, patients with a BMI >40 are referred to our weight loss center, which offers both medical and surgical weight loss.
Poor pre-operative nutrition is clearly associated with poor surgical outcomes [20]. There have been many proposed methods for assessing pre-operative nutrition [21], many of which are impractical to use in clinical practice. In our center, we use the Strong for Surgery checklist, available from the American College of Surgeons (https://www.facs.org/quality-programs/strong-for-surgery) [22]. This consists of four questions, with a “yes” answer to any questions resulting in referral to a nutri­tionist: Is BMI less than 19? Has the patient had unintentional weight loss of over eight pounds in the last 3 months? Has the patient had a poor appetite—eating less than half of meals or fewer than two meals per day? Is the patient unable to take food orally (e.g., dysphagia, vomiting)? Although albumin is an imperfect marker of nutritional status, all patients have a screening albumin checked, which is important in risk stratication (albumin is a major contributor to the NSQIP algorithm) and in identifying additional at-risk patients.
Pre-operative immunonutrition is a controversial topic, but is part of many ERAS pathways. This consists of pre-operative nutritional supplementation using a special formula including arginine and omega-3 fatty acids, theorized to support wound healing and reduce infections complications [23]. A recent meta-analysis of 83 RCTs of immunonutrition in abdominal surgery showed a signicant benet with reduced overall complications (odds ratio (OR) 0.79), infectious complica­tions (OR 0.58), and 1.79 day reduced LOS [24]. Interestingly, the authors of this meta- analysis found a strong likelihood of publication bias; when industry-funded studies were removed from the analysis, the benets of immunonutrition disap­peared. We currently use these supplements in our ERAS pathway although we continue to have some concerns about compliance due to poor taste and expense (average cost ~$55).
Glycemic control is very important prior to surgery, with uncontrolled blood sugars being associated with signicant risk of post-operative complications [25]. It is not uncommon for patients without the diagnosis of diabetes to have an elevated hemoglobin A1C, essentially meaning that they were undiagnosed diabetics prior to surgery. This elevated hemoglobin A1C in previously undiagnosed patients is asso­ciated with worse outcomes after surgery [26]. We therefore recommend testing hemoglobin A1C in patients scheduled for hernia repair. Although there is no level 1 evidence that interventions to improve glycemic control in the pre-operative period affect outcomes of surgery, we prefer to have patients attain a hemoglobin A1C level below 8% prior to elective hernia repair.
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Other cardiopulmonary comorbidities should be assessed and optimized prior to surgery. There are numerous clinical guidelines for whom should have pre-op test­ing for cardiac or other issues [27, 28]. In our practice, we have found assistance from a dedicated medicine consultation hospitalist service to be invaluable. We lib­erally consult our medicine colleagues for assistance with pre-operative risk strati­cation and modication, as well as peri-operative management. Such services have been shown to improve outcomes after vascular [29], orthopedic, and neurosurgical procedures [30] although to our knowledge have not been studied in abdominal or hernia surgery.
There is increasing interest in prehabilitation of patients prior to major elective surgery. The group at McGill have initiated a 4-week program or pre-operative moderate aerobic and resistance exercise, nutrition, and relaxation exercises [31]. They have shown this program to result in improved post-operative exercise capa­bility 8 weeks following surgery, as measured with a 6-min walk test. It is unclear which patients might most benet from such prehabilitation although it does appear that patients with worse initial exercise tolerance may have a greater degree in improvement than those with initially good exercise tolerance [32]. It is also unclear if prehabilitation will affect other outcomes such as length of stay, complication rates, or long-term physical function. While we have not incorporated prehabilita­tion into our formal hernia ERAS protocol, this is an interesting area for future study and possible addition.

Peri-operative Phase

Long-standing tradition calls for nothing by mouth after midnight prior to surgery. In fact, this tradition is contradicted by the evidence, which suggests that solid food can be safely eaten up to 6h and clear liquids can be taken up to 2h prior to surgery [33]. A pre-operative carbohydrate-rich drink appears to actually improve post- operative glycemic control, reduce insulin resistance, and decrease protein loss following sur­gery [34]. Most studies in this arena have used complex carbohydrate formulas, whereas many hospitals that have adopted carbohydrate loading use sports drinks or apple juice, which primarily contain simple sugars. It is unclear if such drinks will have the same effect on post-operative glycemic control, or if they may in fact worsen hyperglycemia due to differences in rapidity of absorption and metabolism.
There is great debate in the colorectal surgery literature regarding the utility of bowel preparation, and bowel preparations of various sorts are typically included in colorectal ERAS pathways [35]. Given that most hernia repairs do not require colon resection, we have not included bowel preparations in our hernia ERAS protocol. On the occasional setting of an enterocutaneous stula or expected concomitant bowel resection, we often will move patients over to our colorectal, rather than her­nia, ERAS pathway. For patients with a planned or likely bowel resection the path­way also includes alvimopan, a peripheral mu opioid-receptor blocker, which may reduce ileus [36].
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There are many anesthetic considerations which affect recovery following sur­gery [37]. Over or under resuscitation is common during surgery, and patients kept close to uid balance (<2.5kg weight change) have signicantly less complications and shorter LOS [38]. Prevention of post-operative nausea and vomiting improves post-operative recovery [39], and there are numerous pharmacologic strategies to deal with this. Normothermia reduces risk of surgical site infection (SSI) [40], and this starts in the pre-operative holding area [41].
Hyperglycemia in the peri-operative period doubles the risk of SSI after major abdominal surgery, and also increases the risk of both reintervention and death, as seen in an analysis of a Washington state Surgical Care and Outcomes Assessment Program database of more than 18,000 patients [42]. Interestingly, hyperglycemic patients who received intra-operative insulin had no increased risk of complication, reintervention, or death. This highlights the importance of early recognition and management of hyperglycemia in the operating room. Despite this, more than 25% of patients who were found to be hyperglycemic were never started on insulin.
Glucose monitoring should not be limited to diabetic patients, as hyperglycemia is common in non-diabetic patients and outcomes of hyperglycemic non-diabetic patients may actually be worse than outcomes of hyperglycemic diabetics, perhaps due to underuse of insulin in this group [43]. In our practice all patients get pre-, intra-, and post-operative glucose checks. Insulin drips are started for any glucose >140.
Avoidance of narcotics post-operatively has been a major goal of most ERAS programs. Excellent pain control with minimal narcotics reduces post-operative ileus, enhances post-operative mobility, and facilitates earlier recovery with reduced LOS.Two main strategies exist for this: (1) use of blocks such as epidurals and (2) multimodal analgesia. Together we call this “Advanced Pain Management,” which crosses from the peri-operative to the post-operative period.
Epidurals have been frequently used in this effort [44]. As ERAS pathways and use of laparoscopic surgery have driven LOS ever shorter, epidurals have become a barrier to early discharge in some patients who may only need to be in the hospital for 2–3 days but who are held up due to the logistics of the transition from epidural to oral analgesia [45]. There is increasing experience with alternatives to epidurals such as the Transversus Abdominus Plane (TAP) block [46].
The TAP block can be performed with standard local anesthetics injected into the plane [47], with catheters threaded into the plane for continuous delivery of local anesthetics [48], or more recently with slow-release liposomal bupivacaine [49]. Although literature is limited, use of liposomal bupivacaine may be more effective than standard local anesthetics [50]; however, the costs of this new pharmacologic agent are high and cost-effectiveness is still unclear. The relative efcacy of TAP block in comparison to epidurals is also unknown, with limited evidence suggesting that epidurals may be superior in some settings [48] and inferior in others [51]. Because of this uncertainty, our current ERAS pathway calls for epidural analgesia in open cases but not in laparoscopic surgery. We have increasing experience with TAP blocks using liposomal bupivacaine off pathway, and are in the midst of look­ing at our own outcomes to determine if our ERAS pathway should be modied to include TAP blocks.
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By its nature, “multimodal analgesia” comprises many different adjunctive treatments, and also spans the peri-operative and post-operative periods. A com­plete review of the entirety of options for multimodal analgesia is out of the scope of this chapter, but there are a number of excellent reviews and guidelines avail­able [52, 53]. Very briey, intravenous acetaminophen, nonsteroidal anti-inam­matories, gabapentinoids (gabapentin or pregabalin), tramadol, intravenous lidocaine, and glutamate receptor antagonists are all options that have been shown to reduce post- operative narcotic use [52]. The relative efcacy of each of these potential adjuncts is not clear, nor is cost-effectiveness. In our own pathway, we have chosen to include pre- and post-operative gabapentin and oral acetamino­phen and oral ibuprofen, with an option for intravenous ketorolac for patients unable to tolerate a diet.

Post-operative Phase

Early feeding seems heretical to generations of surgeons trained to wait for return of bowel function followed by a slow, stepwise introduction of rst clear liquids, then full liquids, and nally a solid diet. There is a plethora of evidence that this traditional approach actually delays return of bowel function and is ultimately coun­terproductive. In fact, early feeding reduces complication rates in gastrointestinal surgery by 45% [54] and is safe in both colorectal and upper gastrointestinal surgery [55]. The traditional clear liquid diet increases post-operative nausea and vomiting in comparison to alternatives [56].
Multimodal pain management and close monitoring and control of hyperglyce­mia are continued in the post-operative period, as described above. Anecdotally, many trainees are taught to advance to oral pain medicine at the same time as a diet is ordered. This can be counterproductive in a setting with early feeding, as patients may have a diet order written but may not actually be taking much by mouth. We emphasize that the transition to an oral pain regimen begins when patients are actu­ally tolerating an oral diet, typically on post-operative day 1–2 depending on clini­cal parameters. Similarly, intravenous uids are stopped as soon as patients take greater than 500mL of oral intake, typically within 24h of surgery.
Early mobilization appears to signicantly ameliorate the functional and physi­cal decline seen after abdominal surgery [57]. In a recent RCT, a structured program of aerobic exercise along with resistance and exibility training resulted in a 22% improvement in the percentage of patients able to walk unassisted 5 days following abdominal surgery, with a number needed to treat of ve [58]. There is little evi­dence to date to specify what specic exercise or walking program is best. In our practice, we have patients out of bed on day 0 and ambulating day 1, with specic walking goals. Physical therapy is consulted on day 1 on all patients. Foley catheters tend to impair mobility and prolonged catheterization promotes development of catheter-associated urinary tract infections. We therefore recommend removal of Foley catheters on day 1. There is no need to keep Foley catheters routinely in place even in the presence of thoracic epidurals [59].