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Introduction to Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Volume 2 (Second Edition)
the capacity they provide for the development of treatments that precisely address
the underlying molecular causes of disease [120].
1.15.6 Enzyme biomarkers in disease diagnosis
Enzymes are frequently used in various medical diseases’ diagnostic procedures
because they serve as measurable indicators of biological processes or disease states.
Cardiac troponins are enzymes that are released into the bloodstream in reaction to
injury to heart muscle cells (myocardial infarction), and they are crucial markers for
diagnosing heart attacks. High levels of cardiac troponin in the blood can be used to
diagnose and treat acute myocardial damage [121].
1.15.7 Pharmacogenomics and enzyme variability
Pharmacogenomics studies how an individual’s genetic makeup affects their
response to drugs. The metabolism and effectiveness of medications are profoundly
affected by enzyme variability. The CYP enzyme family metabolizes many different
medications. Variations in the CYP genes may affect the capacity to metabolize
certain drugs. Differences in CYP might cause slower medication metabolism, which
can increase blood drug levels and increase the risk of adverse drug reactions in some
persons. Knowing a patient’s CYP enzyme profile could help clinicians choose the
best treatment and dose for that individual [122].
1.15.8 Enzyme-based therapies for personalized treatment
Those genetically predisposed to lack certain enzymes may benefit from ERT, which
entails giving them therapeutic enzymes. The severity of enzyme deficits in lysosomal
storage diseases can vary widely between different mutations. Determining the
precise enzyme deficiency of each patient is crucial for providing successful, tailored
enzyme replacement medication. This customized approach guarantees that each
patient receives the most effective enzyme and dosage possible [123].
1.16 Enzymes in bioremediation
Bioremediation is a sustainable method for restoring contaminated environments.
Enzymes are essential to improving bioremediation systems due to their catalytic
characteristics. When enzymes are added to wastewater, organic molecules, and
contaminants degrade more quickly, producing less harmful by-products or becoming harmless altogether. Lipases are enzymes that metabolize fats and oils into their
constituent fatty acids and glycerol. Lipases could be used to hydrolyze fats and oils
in domestic and industrial wastewater, decreasing the risk of clogged pipes and
easing some harmful impacts of these discharges on the environment [124]. Enzymes
can catalyze the conversion of hazardous compounds, hydrocarbons, and other
organic contaminants into less toxic molecules. Enzymes called alkane hydroxylases
hydrolyze alkanes, making up most of crude oil. When applied to oil-stained areas,
these enzymes speed up the natural recovery process. The breakdown of the
hydrocarbons makes this possible [125]. Soil bioremediation is aided by enzymes,
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Introduction to Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Volume 2 (Second Edition)
which speed up the breakdown of organic molecules and the removal of contaminants. Phytoremediation is a method that uses plant roots and the microorganisms
that live in them to detoxify soil from toxins. The enzyme phytase can remediate
polluted soils by promoting plant phosphorus absorption and mobilization from
organic molecules [126].
1.17 Enzymes in agriculture and crop production
Enzymes are natural catalysts that help plants speed up their metabolism. The many
benefits of employing them in agriculture include improved nutrient absorption,
insect and disease resistance, post-harvest convenience, and longer shelf life [127].
The availability of enzymes and nutrient absorption may improve plants’ resistance,
development, and growth. Phosphatases are enzymes that break down organic
matter in the soil, freeing up phosphate for plant uptake. By increasing the amount
of phosphate available to the plant, phosphatases improve germination rates, root
growth, and general plant health. This is especially useful because plants may have
problems receiving adequate phosphate from the soil in low-phosphate
Figure 1.8. (A) Conceptual diagram outlining the role of microbial enzymes in the catalytic degradation of
environmental pollutants to non-toxic metabolites. (B) Schematic representation of the microalgal biomass
production cycle illustrating nutrient recycling and bioresource applications.
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Introduction to Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Volume 2 (Second Edition)
environments [128]. Reduced reliance on chemical pesticides results from cuttingedge strategies that use enzymes to shield crops against pests, illnesses, and
environmental stressors. Chitinases are digestive enzymes that break down insect
and arthropod exoskeletons made of the protein chitin. Chitin-eating insects and
pests have no chance against plants that express the chitinase gene. This enzymatic
method can help protect crops from pests while decreasing the need for chemical
pesticides [129]. Post-harvest handling and storage with the help of enzymes could
help keep harvested crops fresh and usable for longer. Polygalacturonate is an
enzyme that helps ripen fruit. Manipulating this enzyme’s activity may lengthen or
reduce the post-harvest storage duration. Inhibiting polygalacturonate activity may
extend the freshness of some fruits, such as tomatoes, throughout storage and
shipping [130].
1.18 Enzymes in waste management
Enzymes are necessary for biodegradation and energy generation from a wide
variety of waste, making waste management an essential aspect of environmental
sustainability. Compost, rich in nutrients that can be used to improve soil, is
produced more quickly by adding enzymes to the natural decomposition process of
organic waste. Plant cell walls contain cellulose, an essential structural component
that can be degraded by enzymes known as cellulases. The composting process can
be sped up with cellulases, which help decompose organic waste such as food scraps,
yard debris, and leaves [131]. High-quality compost is produced by this method, and it
can be utilized as a fertilizer in sustainable farming by increasing soil fertility with
natural means [132]. Enzymes are used to break down plastic waste into simpler
molecules to lessen plastic pollution and its negative impacts on the environment.
PETase can break down polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a standard plastic. We now
know which bacteria manufacture PETase naturally, and thanks to genetic engineering, we can make the enzyme more effective. An enzymatic method shows promise for
efficiently recycling PET plastic, which could help keep plastic trash out of landfills and
waterways [133]. Enzymes are used in waste-to-energy conversion systems to convert
organic waste into biogas and biofuels. With the help of bacteria and enzymes, organic
waste such as food scraps and agricultural leftovers can be broken down in anaerobic
digestion even when oxygen is unavailable. Biogas, which is primarily methane, is
created by this method and represents a renewable energy source. Using biogas to fuel
vehicles, heat homes, or generate electricity helps minimize emissions of greenhouse
gases caused by waste breakdown (figure 1.8)[134].
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IOP Publishing
Introduction to Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Volume 2
(Second Edition)
Enzymes, proteins and bioinformatics
Ahmed Al-Harrasi, Saurabh Bhatia and Ajmal Khan
Chapter 2
Technologies and procedures involved in
enzyme production
2.1 Introduction
Enzyme production has become a significant area in the modern biotechnology
industry. With advancements in traditional enzyme production methodologies,
different industrial sectors can now easily exploit new applications offering novel
activities and/or improved stability. Enzymes have been used by human beings since
ancient times, either in the form of vegetables rich in enzymes, or in the form of
microorganisms. These microorganisms have been used for many purposes, such as
in brewing, and the baking industry. In the late nineteenth century numerous
biological conversions were attributed to the action of enzymes. Isolation was first
introduced by Payen and Persoz in 1833 [1]. They isolated an enzyme complex from
malt, which they named ‘diastase’, that converts gelatinized starch into sugars,
primarily maltose. In 1874, the history of modern enzyme production really began
when Christian Hansen first synthesized rennet by isolating it from dried calves’
stomachs with saline solution [2]. This was the first enzymatic preparation of
relatively high purity used for commercial purposes. The Christian Hansen
Company is still developing rennet today, in an almost identical way. In 1896, the
utilization of the mold fungus koji in the production of certain foodstuffs and flavor
additives based on soya protein and fermented beverages was the basis on which the
Japanese researcher Takamine established a fermentation process for the industrial
production of fungal amylase.
This process involves culturing of Aspergillus oryzae on moist rice or wheat bran,
and the product is called ‘Takadiastase’ which is currently used as a pharmaceutical
agent to cure digestive disorders [3]. The market value of the industrial enzymes
market was estimated as approximately $2 billion, and has increased at an average
annual rate of 3%–5% in the last decade. Several enzyme production based
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