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446 Farsad Nadjafi and Hartwig Schulz
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health, but it also evaluates potential sources
of PAH occurrence in herbal preparations.
Although the potential contribution of herbal
medicinal products to overall PAH exposure
is considered to be very low, possible sources
of contamination should be identified and
their individual impact on product quality
should be carefully investigated.
Official methods for the determination of
PAHs in herbal drugs or herbal preparations do
not yet exist. The reflection paper published by
the HMPC provides an overview of various
methods useful for the extraction of PAHs from
different plant matrices. Furthermore, various
recommendations for the separation of individual PAHs by GC and HPLC and the identification of individual substances applying mass
spectrometry, ultraviolet absorption, and fluorescence are described in detail (EMA, 2016b).
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Since the occurrence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in various herbal and medicinal
teas has become known over the years (BfR,
2013), a possible contamination of medicinal plants with various PA-containing
weeds, such as different Senecio species, has
been discussed. In order to counteract possible PA contamination, a great deal of research has been conducted focused on this
topic and as a result, a “Code of Practice” has
been developed in collaboration with herb
growers (Dittrich et al., 2016). This document provides a framework for the implementation of individual measures in
pharmaceutical companies along the entire
process chain from cultivation to control
and release of the finished product. Since
complete prevention of PA contamination is
not possible with the current state of the
art, the main focus has been on preventive
measures.
Although contamination of medicinal
plants with PAs is still a challenge for growers and manufacturers today, a remarkable
decrease in PA contamination in herbal
drugs and extracts used for the production
of herbal teas and phytomedicinal products
has been observed in recent years. However,
it has also become clear that the problem of
PA contamination will not be completely
solved in the near future and it can therefore
be assumed that the limit value for PAs of
1.0 μg/day for herbal medicinal products
will continue to be maintained.
Protection of genetic resources/benefit
sharing
Growers and collectors of medicinal plants/
herbal substances must ensure that they
avoid damage to existing wildlife habitats.
CITES (Convention on International Trade in
Endangered species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
must be adhered to. Furthermore, batches of
collected medicinal plant material should be
unambiguously and unmistakeably traceable
to their individual sources. Therefore, appropriate labeling and batch assignment should
be carried out as early as possible. In this context, it should also be possible to clearly distinguish cultivated medicinal plants from
wild-collected medicinal plants.
Seeds used for the cultivation of medicinal plants should be clearly identified and
traceable in terms of genus, species, variety,
or chemotype (the same applies to vegetatively propagated medicinal plants). For the
production of medicinal plants intended for
organic production, not only must an appropriate certificate be available, but also the
starting material should be free from pests
and diseases to ensure healthy plant growth.
If possible, species that are naturally resistant or tolerant to various plant diseases
should preferably be used.
Generally, the use of pesticides should
be kept to a minimum also in the conventional cultivation of medicinal plants. The
application of PPPs should be carried out
only by qualified personnel with approved
equipment. In the case of harvested plants,
the applicable regulations on maximum residue limits provided in the Ph.Eur., various
European directives, the Codex Alimentarius, etc. must be observed.
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their
The Current Situation 447
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Utilization, signed by 50 countries in 2014,
aims to:
create conditions to encourage and support
research that contributes to the conservation
and sustainable use of biodiversity,
particularly in developing countries,
including through facilitated measures for
access for non-commercial research
purposes, taking into account the need to
consider changing the intent for such
research.
The main aim is to effectively reduce biopiracy,
which is often still practiced by developing
countries today, and to ensure a binding
participation under international law in the
products manufactured with the plant raw
materials (e.g., phytopharmaceuticals) and
the profits generated thereby.
Evidence-based practices in Traditional
Iranian/Persian Medicine
Evidence-based medicine (EBM) has become
increasingly important during the last 20 years.
Generally, this discipline integrates clinical experience and patient values with the best available research information. The main objective
is to further improve the use of high-quality
clinical research in clinical decision-making.
In this context, there have also been
numerous efforts to confirm valid scientific
evidence for the individual health efficacies de-
scribed in TIM/TPM. For example, a study
performed by Arabshahi et al. (2015)
described the concept of knowledge-based
practice in TIM/TPM from the perspective of
experts. That qualitative study was conducted
in the form of face-to-face in-depth interviews
to obtain the opinions of TIM/TPM experts
about the concept of evidence-based practice.
The study not only addressed the limitations
of evidence-based practice in Iranian traditional medicine, but also presented the differences between conducting research in modern
and Iranian traditional medicine. However, in
general, the authors conclude that evidence-based practice and the use of commonly
accepted references are essential in TIM/
TPM to objectify its efficacy and effectiveness.
Markets for herbal teas, medicinal plants,
and phytopharmacy
The Islamic Republic of Iran is the second
largest economy in the Middle East and
North Africa after Saudi Arabia, with an
estimated gross domestic product (GDP) of
US$447.7 billion in 2017 and a population
of approximately 80.6 million (The World
Bank, 2019). In the years after the Islamic
Revolution, Iranian pharmaceutical policy
was developed based on the mandatory
generic drug policy (Cheraghali, 2017).
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Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 3, 14. DOI:10.1186/1746-4269-3-14.
Arabshahi, S.K.S., Kenari, H.M., Kordafshari, G., Ardakani, M.R.S. and Shoaleh Bigdeli, S. (2015)
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419–424.
Bagheri, M. and Reghan, M.S. (1994) Study the status and use of medicinal plants in Iran and in the world.
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BfR (2013) Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in herb teas and teas. Opinion no. 018/2013 of the German Federal Institute
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EMA (2016a) Guideline on the use of the CTD format in the preparation of a registration application for
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The Current Situation 449
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abhal (Juniperus sabina) 72–73, 73
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aʿbhar (Narcissus tazetta) 344
abscesses
in IBD 193
peritonsillar 306
absinthe (Artemisia absinthium) 35–37, 36, 348,
382, 386
Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Rabban Tabari 12, 150
Abu Bakr Mohammad ibn Zakariyyaʾ al-Razi
(Rhazes) 12–13
Abu Bakr Rabʿi ibn Ahmad Akhaweyni Bukhari 14–15
Abu Hamed Mohammad ibn Ali Samarqandi 17
Abu Hanı fah Ahmad ibn Dawud Dınawarı
149–150, 150
Abu Mans our Hassan ibn Nooh Qamari Bukhari 13–14
abzam (sitz baths) 282
Acacia arabica/A. nilotica (gum arabic/babul) 27–28,
28, 284, 343, 363, 382, 384
Acacia senegal (Senegal gum) 28–29, 29, 289, 292, 306
Achaemenid Empire 2–3
acne 355–356, 372
Acorus calamus (sweet ag) 426
aʿdas (Lens culinaris) 245, 253
Adiantum capillus-veneris (Venus’s hair fern) 29–30, 30
cough 289, 292, 294, 296, 297, 306, 348
adjustment disorder 172
AF (anal ssure) 404–413
athmun (Cuscuta epithymum) 58–59, 59, 360
afs see Quercus infectoria (Aleppo oak)
afsantin (Artemisia absinthium) 35–37, 36, 348,
382, 386
Agnus-castus alba (Vitex agnus-castus; chaste tree)
110–111, 111, 408, 413
Ajuga chamaepitys (yellow bugle) 30–31, 31
al-Abniyah aʿn Haqayeqal-Adwiyah (Basics of the
Realities of Drugs) (Ali Herawi) 13, 15
al-Dinawari (Abu Hanı fah Ahmad ibn Dawud
Dı nawarı) 149–150, 150
al-Ghaqi (physician) 152
al-ghashi (syncope) 231
al-H a wi (e Continens) (Rhazes) 12, 13
al-Jodari wa al-Hasbah (e Smallpox and e Measles)
(Rhazes) 13
al-Kindı (physician) 150
al-Maliki (Complete Book of the Medical Art) (Haly
Abbas) 13, 15
al-Mansouri (Book for al-Mansur) (Rhazes) 12–13, 14
al-Qa nun at-T ibb (Canon of Medicine) (Avicenna) 21,
23–24, 143
see also Avicenna (Ibn Sina), writings
albanafsaji see Viola odorata (sweet violet)
Alcanna spinosa (Lawsonia inermis; henna) 73–74, 74,
366, 406, 410–411
Aleppo oak see Quercus infectoria
Alexandrian senna (Senna alexandrina) 43–44, 45
alfalfa (Medicago sativa) 198, 211
Allium ampeloprasum (chives) 212
Allium cepa (onion) 359, 426
Allium sativum (garlic) 160–161, 343, 347, 348
almond see Prunus amygdalus/P. dulcis
Aloe vera 405, 409
Alpinia ocinarum (Chinese ginger) 31–32, 426
Althaea ocinalis (marshmallow) 32–33, 32, 205–206,
292, 297, 306
Alzheimer’s disease 170–171, 176–177, 178–179,
180–181, 181–182
amla/amlaj/amoleh see Phyllanthus emblica (amla)
Amomum subulatum (black cardamom) 249–250
Amygdalus amygdalus see Prunus amygdalus/P. dulcis
(almond)
Amygdalus armeniaca (Prunus armeniaca; apricot)
88–89, 89, 407, 411
451
452 Index
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anal ssure (AF) 404–413
anar see Punica granatum (pomegranate)
anbar sael (Liquidambar orientalis) 74–75, 75, 302
anbarbaris (Berberis vulgaris) 200, 216–217
Anchusa azurea (bugloss) 236, 249
Andalucia (Islamic Spain) 142, 145, 146
Anethum graveolens (dill) 202, 207, 363
anghuzah/anjedan see Ferula assa-foetida (asafoetida)
anise/anison (Pimpinella anisum) 345, 392
anosmia 141
antibiotics
for TB 317–318
for vaginitis 380
anticonvulsants 175, 180
antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants
respiratory infections 297, 299, 300, 302, 303, 305
TB 318–327
vaginitis 382–395
antiviral activity of medicinal plants 337–338,
341–348
anxiety 177–178
anzarut (Astragalus spp.) 38
aphrodisiacs 420, 426–432
Apium graveolens (celery) 426
apple (Malus spp.) 196, 200, 215–216, 238, 250
apricot (Prunus armeniaca) 88–89, 89, 407, 411
Aquilaria agallocha (eaglewood) 251
Arabian balsam (Commiphora gileadensis) 51, 292,
298–299
Arabic traditional medicine see Traditional Persian/
Iranian Medicine
Aristolochia spp. (birthwort) 318, 321, 322
A. bottae (Dutchman’s pipe) 34, 359
A. fontanesii (long aristolochia) 34–35, 35
A. rotunda (snakeroot) 35
aromatherapy 5, 172
arrhythmia 232
Artemisia absinthium (absinthe) 35–37, 36, 348,
382, 386
Artemisia montana (mugwort) 37–38, 37
arugula (Eruca sativa) 364, 429
as see Myrtus communis (common myrtle)
as -saydanah al-Tibb (Book of Pharmacy) 15
asafoetida see Ferula assa-foetida
ash-Shifa (Book of Healing) (Avicenna) 20–22, 21
ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) 432
Assyrian plum (Cordia myxa) 52–53, 53, 294, 298, 306
asthma 294, 295, 296, 300, 302, 304, 306, 348
Astragalus spp. 39–40, 122–125, 366
A. brachycalyx (milkvetch) 38
A. fasciculifolius (sarcocolla) 38
A. occosus (milkvetch) 40–41
A. gossypinus 39, 122, 123
A. gummifer 38, 122, 405, 409–410
Atlas pistachio (Pistacia atlantica) 82–83, 84, 364
atopic dermatitis
atrial brillation 232
370, 372
Atropa belladonna (belladonna) 259
Avesta (Zoroastrian holy book) 139
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 144
biography 19–20
contemporaries 15–16
students 24
writings 20–24, 21, 140, 143
anal ssure 404, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413
cardiology 141, 230–232, 233–235, 422
cosmetics 337, 354
cough 288–289, 290–291
diabetes 281–282, 285
GI disorders generally 403–404
herpes 337–338
IBD 192–193, 195
mental disorders 170–173, 174
nasal discharge/catarrh 332–334
rabies 338–339
respiratory system 314–315
sexual dysfunction in men 420–423, 424,
427–428
skin diseases 353–358, 368–371
smallpox and measles 334–337
tuberculosis 315–316, 319–320
vaginitis 381–382, 383
warts (HPV) 340–341
Ayarij-e-Faiqra (laxative) 368–369
Ayurveda 156–157
baboonaj (Matricaria chamomilla) 197, 206, 296
babul (Acacia arabica/A. nilotica) 27–28, 28, 284, 343,
363, 382, 384
bacterial infections 297, 299, 300, 302, 303, 305
leprosy 358, 368
tuberculosis 313–327
vaginitis 380, 386–387, 394
bada m see Prunus amygdalus/P. dulcis (almond)
badranjbuyah see Melissa ocinalis (lemon balm)
badruj (Ocimum basilicum) 237, 249, 391
baghella (Vicia fabia) 362
baghlat-ol-molk (Fumaria parviora) 366
Baha al-Dowlah Seyyed Mohammad ibn Qassem
Nourbakhsh 17
bahaq (skin hyperpigmentation) 369
baheda (Terminalia bellirica) 101, 101, 365
bahman abyad (Centaurea behen) 249
baldness 170
balilaj/balileh (Terminalia bellirica) 101, 101, 365
Balsamea gileadensis (Commiphora gileadensis; Arabian
balsam) 51, 292, 298–299
Balsamea myrrha see Commiphora myrrha/C. molmol
(myrrh)
Balsamodendrum wightii see Commiphora wightii/
C. mukul (guggul)
balsa n/balsane makki (Commiphora gileadensis) 51, 292,
298–299
Index 453
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balut sabghi see Quercus infectoria (Aleppo oak)
Bambusa bambos (giant thorny bamboo) 238
ban (Moringa oleifera) 242–244, 252, 258, 261, 364
banafsheh see Viola odorata (sweet violet)
banah (Pistacia atlantica) 82–83, 84, 364
banana (Musa × paradisiaca) 430
bangdaneh (Hyoscyamus niger) 71–72, 72
banih (Pistacia terebinthus) 304, 430
banj aswad (Hyoscyamus niger) 71–72, 72
baras (vitiligo) 361, 368–369, 372
baras aswad (skin disease) 371
barberry (Berberis vulgaris) 200, 216–217
barijah (Ferula gummosa) 68, 68, 127–128, 128,
293, 300
barley (Hordeum vulgare) 244, 252, 258, 364
barquq (Prunus domestica) 345
basal (Allium cepa) 359, 426
basfa yaj/baspayak (Polypodium vulgare) 87, 87
basil (Ocimum basilicum) 237, 249, 391
batikh-e-akhzar (Citrullus lanatus) 363
beh see Cydonia oblonga (quince)
belladonna (Atropa belladonna) 259
ben (Moringa oleifera) 242–244, 252, 258, 261, 364
Berberis vulgaris (barberry) 200, 216–217
berenjasf (Artemisia montana) 37–38, 37
bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) 359, 363
biopiracy prevention 446–447
birthwort see Aristolochia spp
bitter apple (Citrullus colocynthis) 49–51, 50, 241, 251,
359, 388
bitter ginger (Zingiber zerumbet) 236, 249
black cardamom (Amomum subulatum) 249–250
black cumin (Bunium persicum) 199, 203, 211–212
black cumin (Nigella sativa) 344, 347, 348, 361
black hellibore (Helleborus niger) 70–71, 71, 366
black mustard (Brassica nigra) 173, 174, 175, 176
black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) 198, 209
black pepper (Piper nigrum) 174, 175, 179, 361, 430
blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) 394
blond psyllium see Plantago ovata
bondoq (Corylus avellana) 54–55, 55, 388–389
bosur (rashes) 354–355
bosur labanieh (acne) 355–356, 372
Boswellia sacra (frankincense) 254
Boswellia serrata (frankincense) 197, 202, 206–207
brain 168–169
weakness in function 421–422
see also dementia
Brassica nigra (black mustard) 173, 174, 175, 176
Brassica rapa (turnip) 426
breathing diculties 314
asthma 294, 295, 296, 300, 302, 304, 306, 348
broad bean (Vicia fabia) 362
Bryonia alba (white bryony) 41–42, 41
Bryonia cretica (English mandrake) 42
Bryonia elaterium (squirting or wild cucumber)
64, 64, 360
Buceras bellirica (Terminalia bellirica; baheda)
101, 101, 365
Buceras chebula see Terminalia chebula (myrobalan)
Buceras foenum-graceum (Trigonella foenum-graceum;
fenugreek) 105–106, 106, 194–196, 197,
365, 431
bugloss (Anchusa azurea) 236, 249
bunch-owered narcissus (Narcissus tazetta) 344
Bunium persicum (black cumin) 199, 203,
211–212
but m atlasi (Pistacia atlantica) 82–83, 84, 364
cadmium 445
caltrop (Tribulus terrestris) 431
Camellia sinensis (tea plant) 385
camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) 250, 256
cancer 142
anti-cancer activity 359, 360, 362, 363, 364, 392
lung 299–300
skin 357–358
candidiasis 382, 383, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 392,
393, 394
Canon of Medicine (Al-Qa nun at-Tibb) (Avicenna) 21,
23–24, 143
see also Avicenna (Ibn Sina), writings
Capparis spinosa (caper) 318, 322, 325, 343
caraway (Carum carvi) 321, 324, 325
cardiovascular system 230–261
Avicenna on 141, 230–232, 233–235, 422
and depression 172
carob (Ceratonia siliqua) 46, 382–383, 385
carrot (Daucus carota) 429
Carthamus tinctorius (saower) 43, 44, 359, 363
Carum carvi (caraway) 321, 324, 325
Caryophyllus aromaticus see Syzygium aromaticum (clove)
Cassia alexandrina/C. angustifolia (senna)
Castalia alba (Nymphaea alba; white water-lily) 78–80,
79, 293, 295, 303–304
castor oil plant (Ricinus communis) 345
catarrh 332–334
celery (Apium graveolens) 426
Centaurea behen (white behen) 249
Centaurium erythraea (common centaury) 44–45, 46
Ceratonia siliqua (locust bean or carob) 46, 382–383, 385
chalghozah (Pinus gerardiana) 81, 82, 304
Chamaedrys polium (germander) 104, 104
chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) 197, 206, 296
Charlemagne 154
charme giah (Althaea ocinalis) 32–33, 32, 205–206,
292, 297, 306
Charybdis maritima (Drimia maritima; maritime
squill) 63–64, 63, 293, 296, 300, 306
chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) 110–111, 111, 408, 413
Cheiranthus × cheiri (Erysimum × cheiri; wallower)
66–67, 66, 363, 406, 410
Chelidonium majus (greater celandine) 343, 347
43–44, 45, 363
454 Index
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chickpea (Cicer arietinum) 247, 254, 259, 363, 426
chicory see Cichorium intybus
chilghoza pine (Pinus gerardiana) 81, 82, 304
Chinese cassia/Chinese qurfa (Cinnamomum
aromaticum/C. cassia) 47, 48, 343
Chinese ginger (Alpinia ocinarum) 31–32, 426
Chinese Medicine (TCM) 156, 443
Chinese rhubarb (Rheum ocinale) 94, 96, 365
chives (Allium ampeloprasum) 212
Christmas rose (Helleborus niger) 70–71, 71, 366
Cicer arietinum (chickpea) 247, 254, 259, 363, 426
Cichorium intybus (chicory) 46–47, 47
anti-inammatory 363
cardiovascular disease 245, 253, 259
TB 321, 325
Cinnamomum spp. 369
Cinnamomum aromaticum/C. cassia (Chinese cassia) 47,
48, 343
Cinnamomum camphora (camphor) 250, 256
Cinnamomum verum/C. zeylanicum (cinnamon)
48–49, 49
neuroprotection 174, 175, 176
sexual dysfunction 426
vaginitis 383, 384, 385, 388
citron (Citrus medica) 238, 250, 263
Citrullus colocynthis (bitter apple) 49–51, 50, 241, 251,
359, 388
Citrullus lanatus (watermelon) 363
Citrus limon (lemon) 245, 253, 259
Citrus medica (citron) 238, 250, 363
Citrus sp. (orange) 359
classication of plants 145
classication in TM 155, 157
see also humoral theory
Clinopodium brevifolium (wild basil/savory) 42–43, 43
clove see Syzygium aromaticum
clover dodder (Cuscuta epithymum) 58–59, 59, 360
cobnut (Corylus avellana) 54–55, 55, 388–389
cognitive impairment 170–171, 176–177, 178–179,
180–181, 181–182
colitis (IBD) 191–219
collection of plants from the wild 122–128, 438
Commiphora gileadensis (Arabian balsam) 51, 292,
298–299
Commiphora myrrha/C. molmol (myrrh) 52
cardiovascular disease 247, 254
cough 292, 298, 306
IBD 201, 218
skin diseases 359
Commiphora wightii/C. mukul (guggul) 51–52
anal ssure 405–406, 410
cardiovascular disease 246–247, 253, 259
IBD 198, 207–208
common centaury (Centaurium erythraea) 44–45, 46
common cold 332–334
common mallow see Malva sylvestris
common myrtle see Myrtus communis
common peony (Paeonia ocinalis) 240
common polypody (Polypodium vulgare) 87, 87
conehead thyme (ymbra capitata) 53–54, 54, 105,
105, 394–395
conservation 446
contaminants in herbal medicines 444–446
Convolvulus arvensis (bindweed) 359, 363
Cordia myxa (Assyrian plum) 52–53, 53, 294, 298, 306
Coriandrum sativum (coriander) 198, 209–210,
238–239, 250, 438
Coridothymus capitatus (ymbra capitata; conehead
thyme)
53–54, 54, 105, 105, 394–395
Corylus avellana (hazel or cobnut) 54–55, 55, 388–389
cosmetics 337, 354
Costus spicatus (crepe ginger) 55–56, 56, 359
cough 288–307
COVID-19 141, 303, 346, 347, 348
Crataegus serotina see Cydonia oblonga (quince)
crepe ginger (Costus spicatus) 55–56, 56, 359
cress (Lepidium sativum) 197, 207, 360, 390
Crocus sativus (saron) 56, 57
antimicrobial 389
cardiovascular disease 236–237, 249,
256–257, 261
cultivation 112–114, 114, 436
immunoregulation 363
neuroprotection 174, 175, 176–177
and rose water 173
sexual dysfunction 426, 429
Crohn’s disease (CD) see inammatory bowel disease
cryotherapy (for warts) 341
cubeb (Piper cubeba) 240–241, 251
Cucumis sativus (cucumber) 254, 259, 282
Cucurbita maxima (squash) 282–283
Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin) 282–283, 292–293,
299–300, 363
cultivation methods
in medieval literature 145, 148, 148, 151
present-day 112–122, 114, 115, 119, 436–438,
437, 438
Cuminum cyminum (cumin) 116, 196, 212, 321
cultivation 114–118, 115, 436–438
see also Bunium persicum
Cupressus sempervirens (cypress) 343
Curcuma zedoaria (white turmeric) 237, 249
Cuscuta campestris (golden dodder) 56–58, 58, 360
Cuscuta epithymum (clover dodder) 58–59, 59, 360
Cydonia oblonga (quince) 59–60, 60
cardiovascular disease 241–242, 261
cough 293, 294, 299, 306
IBD 199, 212–213
skin disorders 364
Cyperus esculentus (tiger nut) 429
Cyperus rotundus (nut grass) 343
cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) 343
Cyrus the Great 2, 3
cytomegalovirus (HCMV) 344, 345
Index 455
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d aʿf-e aʿda-e-raeisah (weakness of chief organs)
421–422, 424
damask rose see Rosa × damascena
damm al-akhawain (Dracaena cinnabari) 62, 62, 406, 410
dandelion (Taraxacum campylodes) 408, 412–413
da r mazu see Quercus infectoria (Aleppo oak)
darchin see Cinnamomum verum/C. zeylanicum
(cinnamon)
darchin-e Chini (Cinnamomum aromaticum/C. cassia)
47, 48, 343
Darius the Great 3, 4
date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) 80–81, 384, 385,
391–392
Daucus carota (carrot) 429
Dawaie Loban (polyherbal) 181–182
daylily (Hemerocallis fulva) 360
De historia plantarum (eophrastus) 6–8, 7
De materia medica (Dioscorides) 8, 9, 147, 152, 159
delirium 171
Delphinium staphisagria (stavesacre) 60–61, 61
dementia 170–171, 176–177, 178–179, 180–181,
181–182
depression 171–173, 176, 177–178
deq (daily fever) 315, 316
dermaneh (Artemisia montana) 37–38, 37
dermatitis 369–370, 372
Descurainia sophia (ixweed) 348
diabetes mellitus 281–285
diarrhea 337
dietary recommendations 156, 442–443
catarrh 334
diabetes 284
rabies 339
sexual dysfunction 421, 422, 423
skin disorders 355, 370, 371
smallpox and measles 336
TB 316
dill (Anethum graveolens) 202, 207, 363
Dioscorides (De materia medica) 8, 9, 147, 152, 159
doctors in ancient Persia 5
dog bites (rabid) 338–339
Dorema ammoniacum/Ferula ammoniacum (gum
ammoniacum) 61–62, 61, 366
DOTS therapy for TB 317
Dracaena cinnabari (Dragon’s blood tree) 62, 62,
406, 410
Drimia maritima (maritime squill) 63–64, 63, 293,
296, 300, 306
Dutchman’s pipe (Aristolochia bottae) 34, 359
eaglewood (Aquilaria agallocha) 251
Ecballium elaterium (squirting or wild cucumber) 64,
64, 360
ecological regions in Iran 1–2
eczema 369–370, 372
Egyptian medicine
137–138, 138, 139
Ekhtiya rat Badiʿi (Badiʿi Selections) 17, 18
Elaeagnus angustifolia (oleaster) 201, 218–219
elder (Sambucus nigra) 346
Emblica ocinalis see Phyllanthus emblica (amla)
eʿnab (Vitis vinifera) 346
enab-o-thaʿlab (Solanum nigrum) 198, 209
encephalitis (rabies) 338–340
endangered species protection 446
enemas 193, 339
English mandrake (Bryonia cretica) 42
epilepsy see anticonvulsants
erectile dysfunction
Eruca sativa (arugula) 364, 429
Erysimum × cheiri (wallower) 66–67, 66, 363, 406, 410
erysipelas 356, 357
esfand (Peganum harmala) 344
esfarzah see Plantago ovata (blond psyllium)
essential oils 154–155
see also herbal oils
European market (present-day) 442–446
European medicine
Greek and Roman 3–4, 5–10, 6, 10, 139,
medieval 142, 153, 154, 157–161, 442
see also modern (Western) medicine
evidence-based medicine (EBM) 161–162, 447
eye treatments in smallpox/measles 336
fainting (syncope) 231
false helleborine (Veratrum album) 109, 109
fandogh (Corylus avellana) 54–55, 55, 388–389
fanjankosh (Vitex agnus-castus) 110–111, 111, 408, 413
fara syun abyad (Marrubium vulgare) 76–77, 78
farming
in medieval literature 145, 148, 148, 151
present-day 112–122, 114, 115, 119, 436–438,
fasd (phlebotomy) 282, 333, 336
fa shera (Bryonia alba/B. cretica) 41–42, 41
favus (tinea) 371
fawania (Paeonia ocinalis) 240
feleghmuni (swelling) 355–356
females
premenstrual syndrome 178
sexual dysfunction 426, 429, 431
vaginitis 379–395
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) 364
fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graceum) 105–106, 106,
194–196, 197, 365, 431
Ferula ammoniacum/Dorema ammoniacum (gum
ammoniacum) 61–62, 61, 366
Ferula assa-foetida (asafoetida) 67–68, 67, 126
anti-cancer 364
antiviral 343
collection 125–127
sexual dysfunction 429
421, 425, 429
152–154, 153
437, 438
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