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336 Zahra Boghrati etal.
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3. Measles is less common in general.
4. Measles rarely aects the eyes.
Additionally, the onset signs of measles and
smallpox have some distinctions:
5. Measles patients experience more nausea, depression, and hot ashes.
6. e back pain is less in measles.
7. e appearance of measles is sudden but
smallpox develops gradually.
Treatment of smallpox and measles
Phlebotomy (fasd) is the first and best treatment for smallpox and measles (if hyperemia is present). Nasal phlebotomy protects
the upper organs from smallpox and is more
convenient, especially for youngsters.
DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS. During the early
stages of the disease, nutritious, antiinflammatory, and mildly laxative meals,
such as tamarind (Tamarindus indica), jujube, and skinless lentil pottages, should be
served. It is important for patients to have
regular bowel movements, so tamarind is
highly recommended as a proven laxative in
this context. If it is not successful on its
own, manna or hedysarum, as well as soaked
plums, may be added.
The physician should facilitate the exposure based on the appearance of the rashes
in order to protect the inner organs from
injury. The skin pores should be opened by
topical use of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) or
celery (Apium graveolens) juices mixed with
sugar and by smelling saffron (Crocus sati-
vus). According to Avicenna, fig (Ficus carica)
juice is also extremely effective for this purpose. Other medications include rhubarb
(Rheum ribes) paste, vert jus (a juice obtained
from unripe grapes), cold-tempered fruits,
and date palm blooms (Phoenix dactylifera).
Furthermore, the patient should be
kept warm and not exposed to cold temperatures or cold beverages.
In the late stages, again the bowel movements should be regular. However, the diet
changes and whole lentils substitute the
skinless ones, and sour pomegranate juice,
sumac (Rhus coriaria), or vert jus replace
tamarind.
After around 7 days, a gold needle can
be used to puncture the fluid-filled lumps.
Blisters can only be rubbed with salt water at
this point. To improve efficiency, saffron
and rose water can be added to salt water.
This process helps the bumps to dry up and
scab over.
Anointing the blisters should be avoided
at all stages since it stops them from drying
out. Topical application of barley, rice, broad
bean (V. faba), or proso millet (Panicum milia
-
ceum) flour with saffron, on the other hand,
aids in the drying process.
Preventive remedies
In this section, preventive remedies suggested by Avicenna to protect vital organs
such as the throat, eyes, nostrils, lungs, and
intestines from smallpox harm are discussed.
PROTECTION OF EYES. Drops of fermented rice
water, coriander (C. sativum) juice, sumac (R.
coriaria), and camphor (C. camphora) should
be placed in the eyes as early as possible to
provide them an optimal protection. The application of pistachio oil is also described as
beneficial in this context.
PROTECTION OF MOUT H AND THROAT. Sucking on
pomegranate and mulberry (Morus nigra),
chewing pomegranate seeds, and gargling
mulberry paste are also described as very
helpful.
PROTECTION OF NOSTRILS. Topical applications
of extracts from yellow horned poppy
(Glaucium flavum) and sandalwood (Santa-
lum album), unripe grape extracts (vert jus),
and vinegar, as well as smelling vinegar
alone, are reported to be effective in this
context according to Avicenna.
PROTECTION OF LUNGS. Also Linctus, a dish
made from cooked lentils and poppy seeds,
is described as very effective in protecting
against smallpox and measles.
PROTECTION OF INTESTINES. To protect the di-
gestive organs, the consumption of astringent foods is generally said to be helpful.
Application of Certain Medicinal Herbs 337
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If diarrhea should occur at the end of the
disease, a tablet of Tabasheer (obtained from
the cavities of bamboo cane) is recommended as a polytherapeutic product, which
should be given as a mixture with rhubarb
juice and tablets of sorrel (Rumex acetosa).
Treatment of smallpox scars
In the section on cosmetics, Avicenna mentions more details on this topic. Just a few of
the most effective treatments for smallpox
scars are listed below:
• Dried Arundo donax roots, V. faba our,
Astragalus fasciculifolius, Cucumis melo
seeds and dried peels, washed rice, egg
white, Iris orentina oil, pistachio oil,
and other ingredients.
• Sweet pomegranate, chickpea, soft-
boiled egg yolk and chicken, partridge
and meaty chicken broth are mentioned
as foods that are also suitable to improve complexion.
Measles in modern medicine
The measles virus causes a highly contagious, sometimes fatal, but vaccine-preventable disease. Following exposure to the measles
virus, approximately nine out of ten people
who are not immune will become infected.
Measles outbreaks are announced when the
number of cases recorded in an area exceeds
the expected number of cases, and outbreaks
are more likely to spread in countries with
weak health systems, low immunization
rates, or coverage gaps.
serious illness, birth abnormalities, and
even death. Rubella, also known as “German
measles”, is a mild illness with distinctive
lymphadenopathy but can have serious consequences for pregnant women and their infants (Moss, 2020).
Treatment
Because there is no specific antiviral treatment for measles, control of the disease is
largely limited to prevention.
Despite the availability of safe and effective vaccination, measles is still endemic
in many countries and causes considerable
morbidity and mortality, particularly among
children living in resource-poor environments (Hübschen etal., 2022).
Fluids and antipyretics should be provided to the patient as supportive care. Bacterial infections should be treated promptly
with appropriate antimicrobials. However,
prophylactic antibiotics are ineffective and,
accordingly, should not be used (Bleck and
Rupprecht, 2000).
Herpes
Herpes in view of Avicenna
Herpes sores normally appear as one or more
lumps swell and spread across the body,
causing minor inflammations. The blisters
are yellowish, inflamed, and spherical, resembling warts with a burning sensation
like an ant sting. If left untreated, the herpes
sores may become purulent or fade away
(Ibn Sinā, 2015).
Respiratory droplets primarily transmit measles virus over short distances. Symptoms
include fever, maculopapular rash, cough,
coryza, or conjunctivitis, and people are infectious for several days before and after the
onset of rash. Vaccinated individuals may
experience milder or even no symptoms,
The host immune response at sites of virus
replication is responsible for the signs and
symptoms. Measles and rubella can result in
Pathobiology
Treatment
The treatment should begin as soon as the
outbreaks appear by purging the skin of
harmful humors, as they might create recurrent ulcers. Skin erosion can occur if ulcers
are left untreated.
Avicenna named a few herbal medications for the treatment of herpes. Convolvu-
lus scammonia and whey are used for purging
the herpes matter out. In erosive herpes,
herbs that cool and moisturize the skin
338 Zahra Boghrati etal.
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(such as Lactuca sativa, Nymphaea lotus, Aeonium arboretum, Lemna minor, and Portulaca
oleracea) should be avoided. However, if
these types of herbs are required, ground
dry Solanum nigrum is preferred due to its
exsiccation effect. Other recommended
herbal treatments are: Plantago major, Rubus
fruticosus, L. esculenta, barley flour, pom-
egranate peel, and grapevine cordons. Sick
children should be exposed to heat in the
bathroom, then immediately taken out and
the affected areas of the skin rubbed with
rose water and rose oil.
Herpes in modern medicine
Herpesviridae is a family of lipid-enveloped
DNA viruses. The two herpes simplex virus
(HSV) serotypes HSV-1 and HSV-2 are
members of the Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily that grow rapidly and efficiently destroy
the host cells. Lesions in the epidermis are
characteristic of HSV infection and often involve mucosa, sometimes spreading to the
nervous system. According to the immune
response, the immune status of the host,
and the site of infection, the clinical manifestations of HSV infection appear. Primary
severe infections develop in persons without
preexisting immunity to HSV serotypes, frequently with systemic signs and symptoms,
with a higher rate of complications than recurrent episodes (Marques and Cohen, 2012).
Treatment
Many HSV infections require no specific
treatment. All that is required for HSV infections is keeping the lesions clean and dry
while they heal by themselves. Highly symptomatic or complicated infections need to be
treated. The treatment protocol depends
on the clinical manifestation, host immune
status, and whether it is a primary or recurrent episode or considering suppressive
therapy. Acyclovir, an acyclic guanosine analog, has a high therapeutic index because of
its preferential activation in infected cells
and the viral DNA polymerase inhibition.
The l-valyl ester of acyclovir is valacyclovir,
which achieves three- to fivefold higher bio-
availability after oral administration. Treatment is effective only if used very early in
the disease, especially in the prodromal or
erythema lesion stages. Patients should
have the medication available and be vigilant for the earliest signs and symptoms of
recurrence (Marques and Cohen, 2012).
Rabies
Rabies in view of Avicenna
A painful ulcer is initially the only symptom
after being bitten by a rabid dog. After a few
days, other symptoms emerge, including bad
thoughts and fantasies, nightmares, aggression, mental disorder, talking to oneself, fear
of light, hiccup, thirst, fear of crowds, finger
spasm, redness of the body (particularly the
face), presentation of purulent wounds on
the face, increasing pain, hoarse voice, crying, fear of water (hydrophobia), seizure,
cold sweat, and death (Ibn Sinā, 2015).
When a patient refuses to drink water,
there is the risk of death from dehydration.
On the other hand, the patient may drink, but
is unable to swallow the water and suffocates.
Avicenna considered that there was no
possibility of surviving following the onset
of hydrophobia. The time between the commencement of the ailment and the person’s
death, according to him, might range from
7 days to 6 months, with an average of
40 days. The patient’s prognosis is better if the
bite site bleeds profusely after being bitten
by a rabid dog or if the person has hematuria
after taking antidotes.
Treatment
First and foremost, Avicenna emphasizes
the significance of delaying the healing of
the bite wound for at least 40 days. For this,
sucking, cupping, and the use of deobstruent medications are indicated.
Opopanax chironium in vinegar, onion,
garlic, Eruca sativa boiled in water, Ferula
assa-foetida gum, and Beta vulgaris are some
of the plants that might assist open a bite
wound.
Application of Certain Medicinal Herbs 339
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The physician has to attempt to pull out
the toxin rather than do a bodily evacuation,
since the latter attracts the humors and
toxin to the inside of the body. Cauterization is the best procedure for pulling the poison out through the bite site. In cases of
interdiction, alternative therapies such as
salt ointment and rubefacient medications
like mustard poultice can act similarly. The
purgative drugs should be melanagogue (expelling the black bile) like Helleborus niger,
Terminalia chebula, Cuscuta epithymum, Poly-
podium vulgare, and others. Mild enemas,
such as olive oil, beet juice, and cheese water
with C. epithymum, should be used every day
or every other day when using powerful
cathartic drugs.
DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS. Dietary modifica-
tion is quite important. Meals should be
moist and moderate, such as fowl broth
soups, white bread soaked in cold water, and
drinking the water that has extinguished a
molten iron in it several times. In general,
garlic and onions are quite useful in the
treatment of toxins and the prevention of
poison spread in the body. However, in rabies, combination drugs such as applied in
cancer medicine, Galenus medicine, and
some well-known antidotes (teryagh) are
frequently recommended.
Some plant species used in single-drug
therapy recommendations are: Lycium afrum,
F. assa-foetida, Artemisia absinthium, Teucrium polium, Nigella sativa (highly effective),
Commiphora myrrha, Gentiana lutea, and
Teucrium chamaedrys.
TOPICAL MEDICATIONS. To remove the poison
and maintain the wound open, topical medicines are utilized. Several doctors agreed
that applying a rabid dog’s liver to a bite
wound is really effective. F. assa-foetida
poultice, garlic, salty fish meat, vineyard
ashes, salt and peppermint, O. chironium, C.
melo leaves, and F. vulgare roots are also
recommended.
INDUCING THE PATIENT TO DRINK WATER. As previ-
ously said, the rabies sufferer becomes
extremely thirsty, but hydrophobia and
swallowing difficulties prevent him from
drinking water. However, the uptake of
water can lead to a more convenient treatment. To attain this goal, people perform a
variety of tricks and maneuvers. Some recommend using long and reedy iron or gold
tubes to pour water into the patient’s throat.
Another approach is to use beeswax or solid
honey to produce hollow pieces, then fill
them with water before sealing them and
feeding them to the patient.
Rabies in modern medicine
Rabies is a zoonotic, vaccine-preventable
viral illness that causes acute infection of
the central nervous system (CNS). Domestic
canines are responsible for transmission to
humans in 99% of cases through bites or
scratches via contamination of mucous
membranes with infected saliva. Although
effective human rabies vaccines and immunoglobulins are available, they are not
available to everyone in need; 80% of cases
occur in rural regions, and children aged 5 to
14 years are the most common victims
(Fooks and Jackson, 2000).
Diagnosis
Usually, diagnosis is based on epidemiologic
and clinical findings; but without laboratory
confirmation, and with only a clinical diagnosis, the disease in humans is often misdiagnosed. Every patient with neurologic
signs or symptoms or unexplained encephalitis should be questioned if there is a history
of animal bite exposure in a rabies-endemic
area, because an acute progressive encephalitis (rabies) is virtually always fatal once
clinical symptoms develop (Fooks and
Jackson, 2000).
Pathobiology
After inoculation, the rabies virus may penetrate the peripheral nervous system and
travel to the brain, or it may replicate in
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muscle tissue, remaining sequestered at the
entrance site throughout incubation, before
invading and replicating further in the
CNS. The infection then spreads centrifugally to a variety of other organs. Fever,
chills, malaise, anorexia, lethargy, insomnia, irritability, pain, or paresthesia in the
limb are nonspecific symptoms; an encephalitic variant develops in about 80% of patients, causing behavioral disorders. Early
in the course of illness, rabies can “mimic”
many other encephalitides, such as those
caused by herpesviruses and arboviruses
(Singh etal., 2020).
Treatment
Human rabies is best prevented by avoiding exposure to the disease. Oral vaccination of susceptible wild free-ranging animal populations with rabies vaccines offers
hope for controlling the disease. By controlling rabies in dogs, the burden of human
rabies is reduced. When exposure is suspected, postexposure prophylaxis should
be started right away. After-bite treatment
with local antirabies immunoglobulin,
local wound cleansing, passive immunization with human rabies immune globulin
(HRIG), and active immunization with
rabies vaccination are appropriate (Singh
etal., 2020).
When critical care is not feasible due to
medical or financial reasons, palliative care
requires attention. Guidelines for palliative
care in rabies are absent in endemic regions
(Fooks and Jackson, 2000).
Warts
Warts in view of Avicenna
Avicenna believed that the accumulation of
thick melancholic (black bile) humor in the
blood is responsible for various raised
bumps on the skin. As for warts, he believed
that the cold and dry temperament of one
organ can spread to its neighbor organs,
causing the warts to spread over the skin.
Treating or removing one of them aids in the
removal of the others. Common warts, corns
(plantar warts), and horn-shaped warts are
in this category (Ibn Sinā, 2015).
Treatment
In the case of many spreading warts, phlebotomy and evacuating the black bile are required and the topical drugs should have bitterness and astringent properties. In case of
mild disease, the treatment is also moderate.
Some examples of common topical
treatments for warts are as follows: application of pistachio oil, wild leek juice with
sumac (R. coriaria) and M. pterygosperma oil,
Capparis spinosa leaves, cypress fruits, dried
figs and green walnut shells; Ceratonia sili-
qua is beneficial for large resistant warts and
Myrtus communis fresh leaves for both mild
and severe cases. For severe warts, stronger
and more effective combination medications are used that usually comprise mineral
compounds.
Avicenna also instructed how to remove
warts. This may be done with silver or iron
tubes that have a sharp edge and are hollowed out to the extent that the wart is affixed with some hardness. Avicenna wrote:
Wrap the tubes around the wart and
immerse a bit at its base before cutting it
out, or pull the wart out with a hook until
you get the whole root out, then carefully
cut it o with a sharp keen tool. Ghee is
applied after cutting.
Other approaches are to apply acute
medicine on wart to loosen it. After that
apply ghee and leave it until it removes.
Orpress a thin dimpled iron tool near the
wart to make it fully visible, then cut it and
treat it with acute medicine. Massage the
area with soap, Cyperus rotundus and roses
until the blood that ows from it drips and
gets trapped and after that what remains
will fall o.
Papillomavirus in modern medicine
The papovavirus family (Papovaviridae) is divided into Papillomaviridae and Polyomaviridae.
Application of Certain Medicinal Herbs 341
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Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a group of
DNA viruses that can cause both benign and
malignant skin and mucous membrane lesions. Warts are a kind of benign epidermal
neoplasm caused by HPVs. HPVs infect and
replicate in the squamous epithelium of skin
(warts) and mucous membranes (genital,
oral, and conjunctival papillomas) to induce
epithelial proliferation. The HPV types are
very tissue specific (Murray etal., 2016).
Warts come in over 100 varieties and
commonly occur in children and young
adults, but they may develop at any age and
appear at sites of trauma, on the hands,
in regions of nail biting, and on plantar
surfaces.
Pathobiology
All types of HPV infection are more likely in
people with weakened immune systems.
Warts are normally harmless and most resolve spontaneously in weeks or months
without treatment, especially in youngsters,
but they can be uncomfortable, particularly
on the foot. Some treatments can help get
rid of warts faster, but if some viruses remain, new warts can emerge and others may
last years or a lifetime.
Clinical manifestation
HPV infections can have a variety of clinical
manifestations. Common warts are exophytic and hyperkeratotic. HPV strains 1, 2,
4, 27, and 57 are the most prevalent cause of
papules on the hand, but they can form on
any skin surface, including the vaginal area
(Turner, 2012c).
Treatment
Topical salicylic acid (SA) solutions are
over-the-counter medicines that are excellent at eliminating the top layer of a wart.
They are well tolerated, but they may be
more effective on hands than on feet. Cryotherapy, which involves freezing a wart
with liquid nitrogen, is effective for common warts but was not proven to be more
successful than no treatment for warts on
the soles of the feet or plantar warts. There
was no significant difference in effectiveness
when comparing cryotherapy to placebo,
and the same was true when comparing
cryotherapy to SA. Cryotherapy causes blisters, scarring, inflammation, and discoloration, and usually hurts a little (Kwok etal.,
2012).
Liquid nitrogen and very light electro-
cautery are the best methods of initial therapy. Nightly application of the immunomodulatory drug imiquimod 5% cream may be
effective for recalcitrant warts. There are
some successful claims with apple cider vinegar: this involves soaking a small piece of
cotton in vinegar and sticking it to the wart
overnight. This process is repeated until the
wart has disappeared.
Flat warts (verruca plana) are flat-
topped papules caused mostly by HPV-3 and
HPV-10. Typical sites of involvement include the mouth, forehead, backs of the
hands, and shaved areas. Imiquimod 5%
cream, administered every day or every
other day, may be beneficial in the treatment of flat warts. Patients who are concerned about their cosmetic appearance and
desire quick results can have lesions frozen
using liquid nitrogen. For dramatic clearing
of flat warts, treatment with 5-fluorouracil
cream may be useful. A study of patients
with recalcitrant facial plana (ages 5 to 35
years) reported that oral isotretinoin 0.5
mg/kg daily, prescribed for 2 months, resulted in a complete response in 73% of patients (Dinulos, 2021).
Pharmacologic Aspects
In this section, scientific evidences are
provided on medicinal herbs cited in
Canon of Medicine for various viral diseases. However, only around 30 out of
more than 140 mentioned plants have
been researched in detail for this purpose
(Table 10.1). Tables 10.2, 10.3, and 10.4
respectively present the in vitro, in vivo,
and clinical studies of these medicinal
herbs against viral diseases.
Table 10.1. Medicinal plants mentioned in Canon of Medicine for treatment of viral diseases.
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Scientific name Family Arabic name English name
Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Sant Gum arabic tree
Synonym: Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Pteridaceae Shaʿr el ard, shaʿr el kenzir Southern maidenhair fern
Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae Thawm Garlic
Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae (Compositae) Afsantin Common absinth
Capparis spinosa L. Capparaceae Kabbar Caper bush
Chelidonium majus L. Papaveraceae Mamiran Greater celandine
Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J. Presl Lauraceae Salikhah Chinese cassia
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cupressaceae Sarv Cypress tree
Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae Soʿd mostadir Nut grass, sweet cyperus
Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Khakshir Flixweed
Ferula assa-foetida L. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Anjedan, hiltit Asafoetida
Ficus carica L. Moraceae Tin Common fig tree
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) Sus Licorice
Lactuca sativa L. Asteraceae (Compositae) Khas bostani Lettuce
Moringa pterygosperma
Myrtus communis L.
Narcissus tazetta L. Amaryllidaceae Aʿbhar, narjes Bunch-flowered narcissus
Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Shuniz Black cumin, Roman coriander
Peganum harmala L. Nitrariaceae H armal Esfand, Syrian rue
Pimpinella anisum L. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Anison Anise
Pistacia vera L. Anacardiaceae Fostoq Pistachio
Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Rijlah Common purslane
Prunus domestica L. Rosaceae Barquq Plum
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb Rosaceae Lawz Almond
Punica granatum L. Lythraceae Romman (jolnar) Pomegranate
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Khrwaʿ Castor oil plant
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry Myrtaceae Qaranfol Clove
Synonym: Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.)
Bullock & S.G. Harrison
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae Eʿnab Grape/vine
Ziziphus jujube Mill. Rhamnaceae Oʿnab Jujube
Morigaceae
Myrtaceae
Ban
As
Moringa
Myrtle
342 Zahra Boghrati etal.
Plant Part Extract/phytochemical Activity Tested cell line/assay Result Reference
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Acacia arabica
Synon ym:
Acacia
Leaves Methanol and acetone
extracts
Anti-HCV Huh-7 cell line ↓ Virus titer by 73% (methanol) and
82% (acet
one); direct inactivation
by acetone extract
Rehman etal.
(2011)
nilotica
Allium sativum Bulbs Methanol (98%) and
ethanol (70%)
Anti-influenza A
(H1N1)
MDCK cell line Hemagglutination inhibition: 1
both extr
acts
4% for
Chavan etal.
(2016)
extracts
Capparis
spinosa
Chelidonium
majus
Cinnamomum
cassia
Buds Methanol extract Anti-HSV
Seeds A purified prot
Aerial parts A
Dried twigs Aqueous e
queous extract
xtract
ein
Anti-HIV ELISA kit Inhibition of HIV-1 reverse
Anti-HIV CD4
Anti-HRSV Human upper (HEp-2)
-2
Human PBMCs ↑ IL-12,
immune system
transcriptase with IC
Prevention of HIV-1 at dose of 25
μg/ml
CD4
+
+
H9 cells
Dose-dependent inhibition of
and lower (A549)
respirat
ory tract cell
lines
HRSV-induced plaque formation
by inhibiting viral attachment,
internalization, fusion protein
↑ TNF-α, ↑ IFN-γ; improves
of 0.23 μM
50
Arena etal.
(2008)
Lam and Ng
(2009)
Gerencer etal.
(2006)
Yeh etal. (2013)
production, and syncytium
formation
Cupressus
sempervirens
Cyperus
rotundus
Ferula assa-
foetida
een
Gr
cones
Rhiz
Gum-r
omes
esin
Hydromethanolic
(80%) extract/
proanthocyanin
polymer fraction
Ethanol extract Anti-HBV HepG2.2.15 cells Dose-dependent inhibition of
Sesquiterpene
coumarins
Anti-HIV,
anti-HTLV-IIIB
T lymphoblasts Jur
J6 infectable by HIV,
H9 infectable by
HTLV
Anti-HSV-1 African gr
kidney (Vero) cells
kat
een monkey
IC50 = 1.5–15 mg/ml against HIV ;
IC50 = 5–25 mg/ml against HTLV
HBsAg expr
essions
↓ Viral titer by kellerin at 10, 5 and
2.5 μg/ml
Amouroux etal.
(1998)
Parvez etal.
(2019)
Ghannadi etal.
(2014)
(badrakemin acetate,
kellerin,
samarcandin
diasteromer)
Continued
Application of Certain Medicinal Herbs 343
Table 10.2. Continued.
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Plant Part Extract/phytochemical Activity Tested cell line/assay Result Reference
Ficus carica Leaves and
fruits
Fruits Lat
Fruit latex Methanol, hexane,
Latex Anti-HSV-2 HEp-2 cell line Synergist effect of F. carica and
acyclovir on HSV-2
ex
ethyl acetate,
hexane–ethyl
acetate, and
Anti-HPV Cervical cancer cell
lines CaSki and
HeLa positive for
HPV types 16 and 18
Anti-HSV-1,
anti-ECV-11,
anti-ADV
Green monkey
(Cercopithecus
aethiops) kidney
cells
↓ Rapid growth and invasion of
cervical cancer-transfor med cells;
↓ expression of p16 and HPV
onco-proteins E6, E7
↓ Virus multiplication by hexane and
hexane–ethyl acetate (v/v)
extracts at 78 μg/ml
Ay and Duran
(20
18)
Ghanbari etal.
(2019)
Lazreg Ar
(2011)
chloroform extracts
Glycyr
glabra
rhiza
Leav
es
Aqueous extract Anti-HSV-1 Hep-2, BHK21, and
PRK cells
Roots Aqueous extract Anti-HSV-1 Vero cells infected by
HSV-1
MTC = 0.5 mg/ml; TI = 30.0 Wang
(2004)
Antiviral activity depends on
incubation period and
Ghannad etal
(2014)
etal.
pretreatment of cells with extract
Lactuca sativ
Narcissus
azetta
t
Leaves Aqueous extract,
a
methanol extract
Bulbs Mannose-binding lectin Anti-influenza A
Anti-HCMV,
anti-Cox-B3
and B,
anti-HRSV
HCMV strain AD-169
and Cox-B3
Human larynx
epidermoid
carcinoma cell line
(HEp-2) cells, MDCK
Antiviral activity with IC
μg/ml for both extracts
= 200
50
↓ Plaque formation by RSV
(IC
= 2.30 μg/ml); dose-
50
dependent anti-influenza
activity (IC50 = 0.20–1.33 μg/ml)
Edziri etal. (2011)
Ooi etal. (2010)
cells, and RSV (Long
strain)
Nigella sativa Seeds Herbal f
from N. sativa seeds
(Alphazam)
ormulation
Anti-HCV Subgenomic HCV
replicon cells
carrying luciferase
Selective inhibition of HCV
r
eplication
Oyero etal.
(2016)
gene (LucNeo#2)
and the full genome
(NNC#2)
anum
Peg
harmala
Aerial parts Ethyl acetate,
chloroform, butanol,
and methanol
extracts
Anti-HCMV,
anti-Cox-B3
CPE reduction assay
on MRC-5 cells
Highest antiviral activit
y by
methanol extract (anti-HCMV and
anti-Cox-B3: IC
= 25 μg/ml)
50
Edziri etal. (2010)
344 Zahra Boghrati etal.
ef etal.
.
Pimpinella
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anisum
Pistacia vera Various
Portulaca
oleracea
Prunus
domestica
Prunus dulcis Skin n-Hexane extract Anti HSV-1 Vero cell line Dose-dependent anti-HSV type 1 Bisignano etal.
Punica
granatum
Ricinus
communis
Seeds Aqueous extract/
lignin–carbohydrate–
protein complexes
n-Hexane extract Anti-HSV and
plant
parts
Aerial parts Aqueous extract Anti-influenza A MDCK cells Virucidal and antiviral activity at an
Leaves Methanol extract Anti-HCV Huh-7 cells ↓ HCV NS3 protease expression in
Fruit Ethyl acetate extract/
rutin
Skin Mix of polyphenols Anti HSV-1 Vero cell line ↓ Viral titer and DNA accumulation Musarra-Pizzo
Fruits Polyphenol extract/
punicalagin
Leaves Aqueous, ethanol, and
hydroalcoholic
extracts
Leaves Methanol (70%) extract
(petroleum ether,
dichloromethane,
ethyl acetate, and
n-butanol fractions)
Anti HSV-1 and
-2, antiHCMV,
anti-measles
parainfluenza
viruses
Anti-HCV Human hepatocellular
Anti-influenza MDCK cells ↓ Influenza virus replication Haidari etal.
HHV-3 HEp-2 cells Potential antiviral activity by
Anti-HAV,
anti-Cox-B4,
anti-HSV-1
Vero and MRC-5 cells Inactivation of viruses by interfering
with virus adsorption; ↑ NO, IL-1β,
and IL-10
Vero cell line Anti-HSV activity: extracts of the
skin of processed woody shells,
fresh kernels, and Turkish unripe
seeds; anti-parainfluenza activity:
extracts of the Turkish ripe seeds,
Turkish processed seeds, Iranian
processed seeds, and fresh skin
of natural woody shells
early stage of infection
a dose-dependent manner
Inhibition of binding of HCV-LPs to
carcinoma cells
Huh-7 and Huh-7.5
Vero cells Highly anti-replicative against HAV
hepatoma cells by crude extract
(62%); inhibition of viral entry and
infection by rutin
aqueous extract; interaction of
leaf phytochemicals with HHV-3
protease
(especially methanol and
dichloromethane fractions);
moderate anti-Cox-B4; protective
effect against HAV (especially
butanol extract)
Lee etal. (2011)
Özçelik etal.
(2005)
Li etal. (2019)
Noreen etal.
(2015)
Bose etal. (2017)
(2017)
etal. (2019)
(2009)
Angamuthu etal.
(2019)
Elkousy etal.
(2021)
Continued
Application of Certain Medicinal Herbs 345
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