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56 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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nectar that is attractive to many different
kinds of ants, generally 1.8–2.2 m tall. Leaves
grow to a length of approximately 30 cm and a
width of approximately 10 cm. It produces a
short red cone, from which red-orange flowers
emerge one at a time (Liogier, 1985–1997).
Crocus sativus L., Sp. Pl.: 36 (1753)
Synonyms: Crocus autumnalis Sm., C. offici-
nalis (L.) Honck., C. orsinii Parl., C. pendulus
Stokes, C. sativus var. officinalis L., C. sativus
subsp. orsinii (Parl.) K. Richt., C. setifolius
Stokes, Geanthus autumnalis Raf., Safran officinarum Medik.
Family: Iridaceae.
Arabic name: Zaʿfarān.
Persian name: Zaʿfarān.
English name: Saffron (Fig. 2.24).
Distribution
Africa: Morocco. Asia: Iran, Pakistan, Turkey.
Europe: Greece, Italy, Spain.
Morphology
Corm usually symmetrical, enclosed by several tunics of variable reticulate-fibrous and
color. Leaves (cataphylls) 5–11, 1.5–2 mm
broad, synanthous, sheathing the aerial
shoot; usually present at anthesis; prophyll
present; bracteole present, much smaller
than bract. Flowers deep lilac-purple with
darker veins, white, or white with a purple
base; throat glabrous or pubescent, white or
lilac; perianth segments 3.5–5 cm × 1–2 cm,
obtuse. Style branches 2.5–3.2 cm; filaments
7–11 mm, purplish, glabrous; anthers 0.5–2
cm, yellow; style dividing into 3 long red
branches, each 2.5–3.2 cm (Rechinger, 1963–
2001; Davis, 1965–1988; Ghahreman, 1978).
Cuscuta campestris Yunck., Mem. Torrey
Bot. Club 18: 138 (1932)
Synonyms: Cuscuta arvensis Beyr. ex
Engelm., C. arvensis var. calycina (Engelm.)
Engelm., C. gymnocarpa subsp. deflexa Buia,
C. kamelorum Pavlov, C. pentagona var. calyci-
na Engelm., C. pentagona var. subulata Yunck.,
Epithymum arvense (Beyr. ex Engelm.)
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 57
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Nieuwl. & Lunell, Grammica campestris
(Yunck.) Hadac & Chrtek.
Family: Convolvulaceae.
Arabic name: Koshouth.
Persian name: Sess.
Common name: Golden dodder, Field dodder, Prairie dodder, Large-seeded alfalfa
dodder, Yellow dodder (Fig. 2.25).
Distribution
Africa: Botswana, Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea,
Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritius,
Morocco, Mozambique, Seychelles, Somalia,
Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Caucasus, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan,
Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Myanmar, Russia,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand, Transcaucasus, Turkey, Turkmenistan,
Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Yemen. Eur-
ope: Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium,
Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Germany, Great
Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain,
Switzerland. Americas: Cuba, Ecuador, Jamaica, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico,
USA, Uruguay, Venezuela. Oceania and
Australasia: Australia, Fiji, New Zealand.
Morphology
Stems thin to medium, whitish or yellowish.
Inflorescences globose, usually manyflowered and dense, sometimes few-flowered
and loose, 3–12 mm diameter. Pedicels
mostly shorter than flowers. Flowers 2–3
mm, white, cream, or partly reddish, smooth
or glandular, 5-merous. Calyx almost as long
as corolla tube, lobes ± overlapping, broadly
ovate to orbicular, obtuse to acute, somewhat rigid or carinate; tube campanulate, almost as long as lobes. Corolla lobes shorter
than to as long as campanulate tube, suberect then patent to recurved, triangular,
acute and often inflexed at apex. Stamens
generally a little shorter than corolla lobes;
anthers shorter than to almost as long as
subulate filaments. Scales reaching stamens,
ovate or oblong-ovate, entire, abundantly
fimbriate. Styles c.0.5× as long as capsule,
58 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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slender, suberect to divaricate, stigmas subcapitate, together almost as long as ovary.
Capsule (1.5–)2–3 mm long, depressedglobose, dehiscing irregularly. Seeds 1–1.5 mm,
2–4 per capsule (Bobrov etal., 1934–1964;
Rechinger, 1963–2001; Tutin et al., 1964;
Davis, 1965–1988; Sell and Murrell, 2006).
Cuscuta epithymum (L.) L. Amoen. Acad.
4: 478 (1759)
Synonyms: Cuscuta europaea var. epithymum
L., Lepimenes epithymum (L.) Raf.
Family: Convolvulaceae.
Arabic name: Afithmun, Koshouth.
Persian name: Sess.
English name: Clover dodder, Lesser dodder
(Fig. 2.26).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria, Morocco, Libya, Tunisia. Asia:
Afghanistan, Caucasus, Iran, Kazakhstan,
Lebanon, Syria, Transcaucasus, Turkey,
Turkmenistan. Europe: Albania, Austria,
Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Ukraine. Americas: Argentina,
Chile, Columbia, Mexico, USA. Oceania and
Australasia: Australia, New Zealand.
Morphology
Stems thin to medium, whitish to red, rootless, parasitic plant in which leaves are reduced
to minute scales, hairless, thread-like (0.25–
0.40 mm in thickness) and can be yellow.
Clusters of 7–25 stalkless, purplish flowers
are arranged in a compact sphere. Flowers are
2.5–3.0 mm long and have 5 sepals and petals.
The sepals come together to form a cup shape,
each individual sepal being longer than it is
wide. The corolla tube (a tubular structure
formed when all petals in a flower are united)
is longer than the cup-shaped sepal assemblage. Stamens (male parts) protrude from
the flowers and have oval shaped anthers
(pollen-bearing parts). Within flowers, the style
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 59
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(female structure) extends from the top of the
ovary and is usually as long as the ovary. The
fruit is a spherical capsule, which opens along
its circumference and is topped by the withered petals, c.2 mm, subglobose; each capsule
contains generally 4 small seeds, c.1 mm, ovoid
to irregularly suborbicular, scabrous (Bobrov
et al., 1934–1964; Rechinger, 1963–2001;
Tutin etal., 1964; Davis, 1965–1988; Sell and
Murrell, 2006).
Cydonia oblonga Mill., Gard. Dict.
ed. 8: no. 1 (1768)
Synonyms: Crataegus serotina Salisb., Cydonia communis Loisel., C. cydonia (L.) Pers., C.
europaea Savi, C. lusitanica Mill., C. mali-
formis Mill., C. oblonga subsp. integerrima
Lobachev, C. oblonga var. integerrimosepala
Lobachev, C. oblonga var. obpyricarpa Lobachev,
C. oblonga var. obpyriformis Lobachev,
C.oblonga var. orbiculatocomplanata Lobachev,
C. oblonga var. ovalicarpa Lobachev, C. oblon-
ga var. ovalis Lobachev, C. oblonga var.
plano-cyclocarpa Lobachev, C. oblonga var.
pomiformis Lobachev, C. oblonga var. urceola
-
ta Lobachev, C. silvestris Risso, C. sumboshia
Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Pyrus cydonia L.,
P. lusitanica (Mill.) Steud., P. maliformis (Mill.)
Steud., P. oblonga (Mill.) Steud., P. sumboshia
Spreng., P. cydonia Crantz.
Family: Rosaceae.
Arabic name: Safarjal.
Persian name: Beh.
English name: Quince (Fig. 2.27).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Libya,
Morocco, Tunisia. Asia: Caucasus, Kazakhstan,
60 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Tajikistan, Transcaucasus, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan. Europe: Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece,
Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain,
Switzerland, Ukraine. Americas: Bolivia, El
Salvador, Guatemala, USA. Oceania and Aus-
tralasia: Australia, New Zealand.
Morphology
Shrub or tree, 2–8 m; twigs sparsely villous,
when young, becoming glabrous. Leaves
ovate to oblong or occasionally suborbicular, 5–10 cm × 3–8 cm, entire, bilaterally
white-tomentose at first, becoming glabrous above and densely villous beneath;
petiole 1–2 cm. Pedicels short, tomentose;
flowers 4–5.5 cm diameter; petals pink;
sepals glandular, toothed, reflexed. Fruit
pyriform or subglobose, 3–5 cm (12 cm in
cultivation), tomentose, yellowish, fragrant
(Rechinger, 1963–2001; Tutin etal., 1964;
Davis, 1965–1988; Assadi etal., 1989; Sell
and Murrell, 2006).
Delphinium staphisagria L., Sp. Pl.:
531 (1753)
Synonyms: Staphisagria hirtella Jord., S.
macrosperma Spach, S. moschata Jord.
Family: Ranunculaceae.
Arabic name: Miwizaj.
Persian name: Keshmeshe kauli.
English name: Stavesacre, Larkspur, Licebane (Fig. 2.28).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia. Asia: Lebanon, Syria, Turkey. Europe: Albania, Cyprus,
France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain.
Morphology
Biennial stout plant, softly hirsute, 30–100
cm, throughout. Leaves palmately 5- to 7-fid
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 61
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or -lobed, pubescent on both surfaces with
mixed very short and longer hairs; segments
entire or 3–5-incised, with ovate-lanceolate,
or oblong, acute lobes. Bracteoles at base of
pedicels. Flowers dusky blue; perianth segments 13–20 mm; lower petals obovate,
glabrous, gradually narrowed into a claw;
spur only one-third to one-fifth as long as
sepals. Follicles ventricose, 8–11 mm wide,
inflated (Davis, 1965–1988).
Ferula ammoniacum (D. Don) Spalik, M.
Panahi, Piwczynski & Puchalka, Taxon 64:
780 (2015)
Synonyms: Diserneston gummiferum Jaub. &
Spach, Dorema ammoniacum D. Don, D. gum-
miferum (Jaub. & Spach) K.M. Korol., Ferula
ammonifera Oken, Peucedanum ammoniacum
(D. Don) Baill.
Family: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae).
Arabic name: Oshaq.
Persian name: Washā.
English name: Gum ammoniacum (Fig. 2.29).
Distribution
Asia: Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Turkmenistan.
Morphology
Fibrous and hairy stem 180–250 cm high,
base 3–6 cm in diameter, distally paniculatebranched, first strawberry-green, finally
brownish, with nodes not thickened. All basal
leaves ternate, with pinnate primary segments, more rarely cut bipinnate; outermost
segments large, all largely adnate to the rachis, ± connate at the base, running down the
base, sometimes unevenly bipartite, 4–10 cm
× 1.5–4.5 cm, ± sharp; petioles and rachis
thick, finely grooved in dry groove; stem
leaves generally reduced to large amplexicaules with sheaths pointed at length. Umbels short (about 10 mm) thick, pedunculate
or subsessile, mostly white-floccose-lanate or
less long, glabrescent or globose. The ovary is
like a tinum. Fruit up to 8 mm × 5–6 mm,
Fig. 2.28. Delphinium staphisagria L. (By Ghislain
118 (AD) own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Delphinium_staphisagria_3.jpg.)
Fig. 2.29. Ferula ammoniacum (D. Don). (By
Mohammad Reza Kanani.)
62 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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widely elliptic, brownish-violet, first whitishwoolly, finally glabrous; ridges filiform,
prominent; valle ± distinctly united; patch
2–4-bandaged (Rechinger, 1963–2001; Ghahreman, 1978; Assadi etal., 1989).
Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f., Trans. & Proc.
Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 30: 623 (1882)
Synonyms: Draco cinnabari (Balf.f.) Kuntze.
Family: Asparagaceae.
Arabic name: Damm al-akhawain.
Persian name: Khoone siāwosh.
English name: Dragon’s blood tree (Fig. 2.30).
Distribution
Asia: Yemen.
Morphology
A tree such as palms, grows from the tip of
the stem, with the leaves borne at the end,
5(–10) m tall, trunk 40 cm diameter;
branches at maturity to produce an umbrella-shaped crown; thick and stout, dichotomous branching, branching tends to
occur when the growth of the terminal bud
is stopped, due to either flowering or traumatic events (e.g., herbivory). Leaves are
dense rosettes at the end of its youngest
branches, falling every 3 or 4 years before
new leaves simultaneously mature, rigid,
30–60 cm × 2–3 cm. Inflorescences terminal; flowers 2–3 groups at the end of the
branches, aromatic, white or green; pedicels 5 mm long; perianth cup-shaped, up to
5 mm long; stamens are slightly shorter;
style thread-like ending in a capitate
stigma. Fruits is small fleshy, 3 seeds,
green at young and black at mature, berries
exude a deep red resin, known as dragon’s
blood. Seeds 4–5 mm in diameter (Govaerts,
2000).
Fig. 2.30. Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f. (By Rod Waddington own work, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Dragons_Blood_Tree%2C_Socotra_Island_%2810941931846%29.jpg.)
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 63
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Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn, Ann. Mus.
Goulandris 4: 204 (1978)
Synonyms: Charybdis maritima (L.) Speta,
Ornithogalum maritimum (L.) Lam., O. squilla
Ker Gawl., Scilla maritima L., S. rubra Garsault, Squilla maritima (L.) Steinh., Stellaris
scilla Moench, Urginea maritima (L.) Baker,
U. scilla Steinh.
Family: Asparagaceae.
Arabic name: Oʿns ol bahri.
Persian name: Oʿnsol, Piāze moush.
English name: Maritime squill (Fig. 2.31).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria. Europe: Portugal, Spain.
Morphology
The bulbs (which often clump together
near soil level) are up to 20 cm in diameter
and can weigh up to 1 kg. Each bulb bears
Fig. 2.31. Drimia maritima (L.). (By Orangerind, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/2/23/Wild_Drimia_Maritima_in_Iran.jpg.)
64 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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about 10 dark green, leathery leaves, up to
100 cm long and 12 cm wide. The inflorescence is a dense, many-flowered raceme
some 1–1.5 m tall. The flower stalks are
15–20 mm long. The flowers are 14–16 mm
across, with 6 perianth segments, which
are white with a greenish stripe. A variant
form with red-tinted flowers is commonly
referred to as red squill. The fruit is a capsule, 6–12 mm long, borne on an erect stalk
(Chaudhary, 2001).
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich, J.B.G.
Bory de Saint-Vincent, Dict. Class. Hist.
Nat. 6: 19 (1824)
Synonyms: Bryonia elaterium (L.) E.H.L.
Krause, Ecballium agreste Rchb., Momordica
elaterium L.
Family: Cucurbitaceae.
Arabic name: Qithā’ el himār.
Persian name: Khiāre khar.
Common name: Squirting cucumber, Exploding cucumber (Fig. 2.32).
Distribution
Africa: Albania, Algeria, Libya, Morocco,
Tunisia. Asia: Caucasus, China, Iran, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Syria, Tajikistan, Transcaucasus, Turkey, Uzbekistan. Europe:
Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Great Britain,
Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Russia,
Spain, Ukraine. Americas: USA. Oceania and
Australasia: Australia, New Zealand.
Morphology
Stems up to 60 cm. Leaves long-petiolate;
lamina 4–10 cm, entire, cordate to triangular, undulate, denticulate, rather fleshy. Corolla yellowish, male flowers 18–20 mm. Fruit
4–5 cm × 2–5 cm, ovoid, green, very hispid,
dehiscing explosively at the base (Bobrov
et al., 1934–1964; Rechinger, 1963–2001;
Davis, 1965–1988; Sell and Murrell, 2006).
Phyllanthus emblica L., Sp. Pl.: 982 (1753)
Synonyms: Cicca emblica (L.) Kurz, C. macrocarpa Kurz, Diasperus emblica (L.) Kuntze,
D. pomifer (Hook.f.) Kuntze, Dichelactina nodicaulis Hance, Emblica arborea Raf., E. officinalis Gaertn., Phyllanthus glomeratus Roxb. ex
Fig. 2.32. Ecballium elaterium (L.) (by Peter A. Mansfeld, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Ecballium_elaterium_pm2.jpg)
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 65
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Benth., P. mairei H. Lév., P. mimosifolius
Salisb., P. pomifer Hook.f., P. taxifolius D. Don.
Family: Phyllanthaceae.
Arabic name: Amlaj.
Persian name: Āmoleh.
English name: Indian gooseberry, Emblic
myrobalan, Malacca tree, Amla (Fig. 2.33).
Distribution
Africa: Mauritius. Asia: Bangladesh, Borneo
Island, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia,
Laos, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri
Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam. Amer-
icas: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago,
Windward Islands.
Morphology
Tree, 3–8(–23) m tall, deciduous, monoecious; bark brownish; main stems terete,
sparsely lenticellate, with very reduced short
shoots producing groups of leafy shoots;
leafy shoots angular, tawny pubescent, at
start of growing season often with poorly
developed leaves and densely flowered, later
with fewer flowers and better-developed
leaves. Leaves distichous; stipules triangular-ovate, 0.8–1.5 mm, brown, margins entire or denticulate, ciliate; petiole 0.3–0.7 mm;
leaf blade oblong or linear-oblong, 8–23 cm
× 1.5–6 mm, papery to leathery, paler abaxi
ally, green adaxially, drying reddish or
brownish, base shallowly cordate and
slightly oblique, margin narrowly revolute,
apex truncate, rounded or obtuse, mucronate or retuse at tip; lateral veins 4–7 pairs.
Fascicles with many male flowers and sometimes 1 or 2 larger female flowers. Male
flowers: pedicels 1–2.5 mm; sepals 6,
membranous, yellow, obovate or spatulate,
subequal, 1.2–2.5 mm × 0.5–1 mm, apex obtuse or rounded, margin entire or shallowly
denticulate; disk glands 6, subtriangular;
stamens 3; filaments coherent into column,
Fig. 2.33. Phyllanthus emblica L. (By L. Shymal, CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Phyllanthus_officinalis.jpg#/media/File:Phyllanthus_officinalis.jpg.)
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