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X
- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •Contents
- •1: History and Evolution of Hernia Surgery
- •References
- •2.1 Introduction
- •3.2.2 Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs)
- •3.2.3 Growth Factors
- •References
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2.1 Collagen Fibers
- •3.2.4 Elastic Fibers
- •3.3 Discussion
- •References
- •References
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.3.2 Ultrasound
- •5.3.3 CT Scan
- •5.3.4 MRI
- •5.3.5 Herniography
- •5.3.6 Diagnostic Laparoscopy
- •References
- •6.1 Prosthetic Mesh Materials
- •6.1.1 Introduction
- •6.1.3.1 Wound Healing Process
- •6.1.3.2 The Foreign Body Reaction
- •6.1.4 The Ideal Prosthetic Mesh
- •6.2 Mesh Properties
- •6.2.1 Materials
- •6.2.1.1 Plastic (Synthetic) Meshes: Non-Absorbable
- •Polypropylene Mesh (PPM)
- •Polyester Mesh
- •ePTFE
- •cPTFE
- •PVDF
- •Polyglycolic Acid
- •Polyglactin 910
- •6.2.1.4 Composite/Hybrid Meshes
- •6.2.1.5 Biological Meshes
- •6.2.1.6 Cross-Linked Vs. Non-Cross-Linked
- •6.2.2 Mesh Construction
- •6.2.6.1 Low-Cost Mesh
- •6.3.1 Introduction
- •6.3.2 Fixation Methods
- •6.3.2.1 Suture Fixation
- •Suture Material
- •Suture Technique
- •6.3.2.2 Glue Fixation
- •6.3.2.3 Fibrin Sealant Fixation
- •6.3.2.4 Staple Fixation
- •6.3.2.6 No Fixation
- •6.3.2.7 Self-Fixing Mesh
- •References
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.2.3 Other Tools
- •7.2.5.2 Group Members
- •7.2.6 The GRADE Approach
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.4 Registry-Based Research
- •References
- •9.1 Introduction
- •References
- •10.1 Background
- •10.2 Trends
- •10.3 The Mesh Implant
- •10.5.1 Day Surgery
- •10.5.2 Laparoscopic Ventral Hernia Surgery
- •10.6 Actual Situation
- •10.6.1 Innovative Surgical Techniques
- •10.6.2 Sub-Specialisation
- •References
- •11.1 Hernia Epidemiology
- •11.1.1 Groin Hernia
- •11.1.2 Ventral Incisional Hernia
- •11.2 Pre-Habilitation
- •11.3 Operative Techniques
- •11.5 Robot-Assisted Hernia Repair
- •References
- •12.1 Introduction
- •References
- •13.4.1 Inguinal Hernia Repair
- •13.4.3 Incisional Hernia Repair
- •13.5 Laparoscopic Training
- •13.6 TAPP Versus TEP
- •13.7 Open Inguinal Hernia Repair
- •13.8 Mesh Controversy
- •References
- •14.1 Summary
- •15: Humanitarian Hernia Surgery: Lessons Learned
- •15.1 Introduction
- •15.2 Service Missions
- •15.2.1 Surgeon Selection
- •15.4.4 Surgeon Trainee Selection
- •References
- •15.3.5 Incisional Hernias
- •15.3.6 Anesthesia Care
- •15.3.7 Patient Follow-Up
- •15.4 Training Missions
- •15.4.1 Capacity Building
- •15.4.2 Training Method
- •References
- •17: Anatomy of the Inguinal Region
- •17.2 The Inguinal Canal (Fig. 17.7)
- •17.3 Entrance to the Channel: the Deep Inguinal Ring
- •17.5 Floor of the Channel: the Inguinal Ligament
- •17.8 Spermatic Cord and Vascular Issues
- •References
- •18: Ambulatory Hernia Surgery
- •18.2 History
- •18.4 International Comparison
- •References
- •Suggested Readings
- •20.1 Etiology
- •20.2 Clinical Manifestation
- •20.5 Treatment
- •20.5.5 Preoperative Preparation
- •20.5.7 Surgical Procedures
- •20.5.9 Surgical Procedures
- •References
- •21.2 Statistical Relevance
- •21.3 Pure Tissue Repairs
- •21.8.1 Foreign Object
- •21.9 Material-Related Changes
- •References
- •22.1 Introduction
- •22.2 Personal Experience
- •22.3 Indications
- •22.4 Surgical Technique
- •References
- •23: Bassini Repair
- •23.1 Introduction
- •23.3 Skin Incision
- •23.12 The Filzetta Stitch
- •23.13 The First Stitch
- •23.14 The Second Stitch
- •23.15 The Third Stitch
- •23.16 The Last Stitch
- •24: The Shouldice Repair
- •24.1 Introduction
- •24.2 Local Anaesthesia
- •24.3.1 Dissection
- •24.3.2 Reconstruction
- •24.4.1 Dissection
- •24.4.2 Reconstruction
- •References
- •25.1 Introduction
- •25.2 Surgical Indications
- •25.3 Surgical Technique
- •25.5 Outcomes
- •References
- •26.1 Indications
- •26.2 Patient Preparation
- •26.3 Original Technique
- •26.3.1 Anesthesia
- •26.3.2 Local Anesthesia
- •26.3.2.1 Mixture
- •26.3.3 Technique
- •26.4 Surgical Dissection
- •26.4.1 Hernia Sac Treatment
- •26.4.1.1 Medial Hernia Sac
- •26.4.1.2 Lateral Hernia Sac
- •26.4.2 The Mesh: Material
- •26.4.3 Mesh Fixation
- •References
- •27: Mesh Plug Repair
- •27.1 Introduction
- •27.2 Surgical Technique
- •27.3 Comments
- •References
- •28.1 Introduction
- •28.3 Surgical Procedure
- •28.3.1 Anesthesia
- •28.4.1 Antibiotic Prophylaxis
- •28.4.2 Preoperative Landmarks
- •28.4.3 Anesthesia
- •28.4.4 Nerve Management
- •28.4.5 Hernial Sac Management
- •28.4.6 Mesh Application
- •28.4.7 In Females
- •28.5 Discussion and Conclusions
- •References
- •29: Gilbert Technique: PHS Bilayer Repair
- •29.3 Suture Repairs
- •29.4 Anterior Mesh Repairs
- •29.9.4.1 Medial (Direct) Hernias
- •29.9.4.2 Lateral (Indirect) Hernias
- •29.9.7 Post-op Care
- •29.10 Results
- •29.13 Discussion
- •References
- •30.1 Introduction
- •30.2 The ONSTEP Technique
- •30.3 Clinical Data
- •30.5 Health Economics
- •30.6 Perspectives
- •References
- •31.1 Introduction
- •31.2 Anesthesia
- •31.3 Operative Technique: Lateral Hernia
- •31.3.1 First Step: Skin Incision
- •31.3.2 Second Step: Nerve Preservation
- •31.4 Operative Technique: Medial Hernia
- •31.6 Results
- •References
- •32: Minimal Open Preperitoneal (MOPP) Technique
- •32.1 Introduction
- •32.3 Surgical Technique
- •32.4 Indications
- •32.5 Special Cases
- •32.5.1 Female Hernias
- •32.5.2 Femoral Hernia
- •32.5.3 Scrotal Hernia
- •32.5.4 Strangulated Hernia
- •32.6 Contraindications
- •32.7 Personal Data
- •References
- •33.1 Introduction
- •33.2 Indications
- •33.3 Contraindications
- •33.4 Relative Contraindications
- •33.5 Preoperative Preparation
- •33.6 Operating Theatre Setup
- •33.6.1 Instruments
- •33.7 Surgical Technique
- •33.7.5 Hernia Reduction
- •33.7.5.1 Medial or Direct Hernia
- •33.7.5.2 Femoral Hernia
- •33.7.5.3 Obturator Hernia
- •33.7.5.4 Indirect Hernia
- •33.7.5.5 Mesh Repair
- •33.8 Postoperative Care
- •33.9 Complications
- •References
- •34: Primary Inguinal Hernia: TAPP
- •34.1 Introduction
- •34.3 The Standardized TAPP Technique
- •34.3.1 Pneumoperitoneum
- •34.3.2 Trocar Placement
- •34.3.3 Dissection
- •34.3.4 Mesh Placement
- •34.3.5 Fixation
- •34.3.6 Peritoneal Closure
- •34.3.8 Antibiotic and Thromboembolic Prophylaxes
- •References
- •35.1 Introduction
- •35.2 Biological Prosthesis
- •35.2.1 Features
- •35.4 Complications
- •35.5 Clean Fields
- •35.6 Contaminated Fields
- •35.7 Inguinal Sports Hernias
- •References
- •36: Inguinal Hernia Recurrence
- •36.1 Introduction
- •References
- •37.1 Introduction
- •37.2 Clinical Presentation
- •37.3 Literature Review
- •37.4 Surgical Technique
- •References
- •38: Pubic Inguinal Pain Syndrome (PIPS)
- •38.1 Introduction
- •38.2 Clinical Aspect
- •38.3 Diagnosis
- •38.4 Management
- •38.4.1 Conservative Treatment
- •38.4.2 Surgical Treatment
- •References
- •39.1.1 Incarcerated Hernia
- •39.1.2 Intestinal Occlusion
- •39.1.3 Strangulation
- •39.2 Diagnosis
- •39.2.1 Physical Examination
- •39.2.2 Ultrasound
- •39.2.3 Abdominal Radiographs
- •39.2.4 Computed Tomography
- •39.2.6 Laparoscopy
- •39.2.7 Deep Inguinal Ring Laparoscopy
- •39.3 Surgical Options
- •Bibliography
- •40.1 Watchful Waiting
- •40.2.1 Open Inguinal Hernia Repair
- •40.2.1.1 Mesh-Based Repair
- •40.2.1.2 Mesh Types
- •40.2.1.3 Lichtenstein Repair
- •40.2.1.6 Bilayered Mesh System
- •40.2.1.7 Self-Gripping Mesh
- •40.2.1.8 Glue Fixation
- •40.2.1.9 Preperitoneal Approaches
- •40.2.1.10 Suture-Based Open Repairs
- •40.2.2 Laparoscopic Inguinal Hernia Repair
- •40.2.3 Complications
- •40.2.3.1 Recurrence
- •40.2.3.2 Chronic Pain
- •40.2.3.4 Infections
- •40.2.3.5 Urinary Retention
- •40.2.3.6 Sexual Dysfunction
- •40.2.3.8 Seroma
- •References
- •41.2 Epidemiology
- •41.3.1 Neuropathic Pain Syndromes
- •41.3.1.1 Inguinal Nerve Involvement
- •41.3.1.2 Lower Intercostal Nerve
- •41.3.1.3 Neuroma Formation
- •41.3.2.1 Mesh-Related Pain
- •Meshoma Formation
- •41.3.2.2 Adductor Tendinopathy
- •41.3.2.3 Periostitis Pubis
- •41.3.2.4 Iliopectineal Bursitis
- •41.3.3 Combined Groin Pain Syndromes
- •41.3.3.1 Dysejaculation
- •41.4 Assessment
- •41.4.1 Patient’s History
- •41.4.1.3 Diagnostic Questionnaires
- •41.4.2 Physical Examination
- •41.4.2.4 Spine Examination
- •41.4.3 Pitfalls
- •41.4.4 Imaging
- •41.4.4.1 Ultrasonography
- •41.4.4.2 Computed Tomography
- •41.4.4.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- •41.4.5 Other Diagnostics
- •41.4.5.1 Diagnostic Injections
- •Local Anaesthetic Agents
- •Corticosteroids
- •41.4.5.2 Quantitative Sensory Testing
- •41.4.5.3 Other Imaging Techniques
- •References
- •42.1 Clinical Assessment
- •42.2 Treatment
- •References
- •43.1 Surgical Techniques
- •43.1.1 Endoscopic Groin Exploration
- •43.1.2 Meshoma
- •43.1.3 Fixation
- •43.1.5 Orchialgia
- •43.1.6.1 Operative Technique
- •43.2 Results
- •References
- •References
- •45: Primary Femoral Hernia: Open Anterior Treatment
- •45.1 Introduction
- •45.4 Anaesthesia
- •45.5 Surgical Techniques
- •45.5.1 UHS: Ultrapro Hernia System
- •45.5.2 PHS: Prolene Hernia System
- •45.5.3 UPP: Ultrapro Plug
- •45.9.2 Anaesthesia
- •45.9.3 Local Complications n. 41 (16.8%)
- •45.9.4 Abdominal Complications
- •References
- •46.1 Introduction
- •46.1.2 Anesthesia
- •46.1.3 Surgical Techniques
- •46.1.3.1 The Kugel Approach
- •46.1.3.2 The Transinguinal Preperitoneal Technique (TIPP)
- •46.1.3.3 The Transrectus Sheath Preperitoneal Mesh Technique (TREPP)
- •46.1.3.4 Postoperative Recommendations
- •References
- •47: Laparoscopic Femoral Hernia Repair
- •47.5 Operative Technique
- •47.5.1 Total Extraperitoneal Repair (TEP)
- •References
- •48.1 Risk Factors
- •48.3 Surgical Technique Repair
- •48.4 Surgical Site Infection
- •48.5 Persisting Chronic Pain
- •References
- •49.1.1 Rectus Muscle
- •References
- •50: Umbilical Hernia Repair
- •50.1 Introduction
- •50.2 Open Repair
- •50.2.1 Tissue Repair
- •50.2.2 Mesh Repair
- •50.3 Minimally Invasive Repair
- •50.3.1 Laparoscopic Repair
- •50.3.2 Robotic Repair
- •References
- •51.1 Introduction
- •51.2 The MILOS Technique

Danmark
Sweden
Norway
England
Netherlands
Finland
Scotland
Belgium
Hong Kong
Germany
Australia
Portugal
France
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Percentage of outpatient operations for inguinal hernia inPercentage
18 Ambulatory Hernia Surgery
0
177
USA
Fig. 18.2 Percentage of outpatient operations for inguinal hernia in selected countries in 2005 [29]
Table 18.2 Percentage of outpatient operations in
European countries (EHS survey 2016)
Country Proportion in %
Sweden 80
Netherlands 75
Portugal 70
Spain 60
England 60
Belgium 40
France 40
Germany 15
Poland 10
Russia 10
Turkey 10
Czech Republic 5
Serbia 5
Ukraine 2
Greece 0
Romania 0
Italy
Spain
gery in percent in the respective countries
(Table18.2).
The proportion of outpatient hernia operations
thus varies between 0% and 80%. In most countries, however, there is no systematic recording of
the operations. In Sweden (Fig.18.3, Table18.3)
and Denmark, there are national registries, which
record nearly all operations statistically because
of state funding. In most other countries, there
are only estimates.
Healthcare nancing and reimbursement
appear to have a decisive inuence on outpatient
surgery. It can be assumed that endoscopic operations cause higher perioperative costs a priori
[31]. In Germany, the extremely low proportion
of endoscopic procedures in the ambulatory area
is due to the fact that outpatient endoscopic inguinal hernia surgery is linked to a roughly 20 per
More precise systematic statistics regarding
outpatient surgery from the individual countries are lacking. There are usually only studies
that consider a short timeframe in individual
countries. The European Hernia Society then
conducted a survey among the national chapters in 2015. This resulted in the following
estimates for outpatient inguinal hernia sur-
cent shortfall in funding [32]. At present, there
appears still to be a health policy disincentive in
Germany [33].
In an international comparison, the reimbursement situation for hernia surgery appears to differ
substantially (Table 18.4): in numerous countries, there are ambulatory DRGs, which enable
outpatient payments to be similar to those in the
inpatient area.

178
Part of hernia repair in day-surgery separated for genders
Fig. 18.3 Proportion of outpatient inguinal hernia operations in Sweden compared by year [30]
R. Lorenz
Table 18.3 Proportion of outpatient inguinal hernia operations in Sweden compared by year 2006–2015 [30]
Year
Outpatient 75.7 76.7 78.1 79.7 78.9 78.5 78.4 79.3 78.1 78.5
Inpatient 24.3 23.3 21.9 20.3 21.1 21.5 21.6 20.7 21.9 21.5
Table 18.4 International comparison of the reimburse-
ment situation [34]
Country aDRG1 /APC2% of inpatient payment
Australia Yes <100%
Hungary Yes 100%
Portugal Yes 72–100%
USA Yes=APC 65–85%
Sweden Ye s 100%
Italy Yes 80–100%
Denmark Ye s 100%
Finland Ye s 50–67%
Norway Ye s 65–100%
Germany No 25% (14–38%)
1
Ambulatory diagnosis relatet groups
2
Ambulatory payment classications
2006
(%)
2007
(%)
2008
(%)
2009
(%)
2010
(%)
2011
(%)
2012
(%)
Successful performance of outpatient surgery
requires the following:
– Correct indication
– Precise preoperative diagnosis
– Denition of standardised postoperative
care
– Denition of an operation standard
– Management of complications
– Postoperative pain management with
use of local anaesthetics
– Emergency contact
2013
(%)
2014
(%)
2015
(%)
18.5 Practical Requirements
andCurrent Data
For outpatient surgery, the same structural and
stafng provisions should apply as in a hospital.
A checklist and handout for patients (What
happens before and after the operation?) can
greatly facilitate the practical implementation of
outpatient surgery.

18 Ambulatory Hernia Surgery
179
From today’s perspective, the following her-
nia types can usually be repaired by day surgery:
– Primary inguinal hernias with and with-
out mesh, open and endoscopic
– Recurrent inguinal hernias
– Umbilical and epigastric hernias
– Small incisional hernias
Inpatient hernia surgery is benecial in the
majority of the following patients:
1. Based on the hernia
– Incarcerated and possibly non-reducible
inguinal hernias
– Extensive scrotal hernias
– Bilateral hernias or multiple operations
– Complex hernia operations, reopera-
tions with mesh explantation
– Primary ventral hernias with planned
complex procedures
– Secondary ventral hernias = incisional
hernias
2. Because of comorbidities
– Comorbidities with serious secondary
conditions such as stroke, diabetes mel-
litus, CHD, cardiac arrhythmias, renal
failure, severe COPD, anticoagulation
3. Because of the patient’s social situation
– Lack of patient compliance
– Lack of aftercare in the night after the
operation
Moreover, supporting quality assurance is
useful.
Based on an initiative by a group of surgeons
working in outpatient surgery, the Netzwerk
Leistenbruch [Inguinal hernia network] was set
up in Germany in 2009, an additional quality
assurance study of inguinal hernia operations,
www.netzwerk-leistenbruch.de, which is linked
with Herniamed, the German hernia registry. The
Netzwerk Leistenbruch records in particular the
early postoperative course 1 and 3months after
an inguinal hernia operation and evaluates quality of life independent of the surgeon using the
Carolinas Comfort Scale, with a hernia-specic
quality of life questionnaire for patients. This
showed that very good quality with low recurrence and chronic pain rates can be achieved in
the ambulatory sector [35].
In addition, a univariate analysis of Herniamed
data was performed in 2016 to compare outpatient and inpatient inguinal hernia operations: in
the period from 01.09.2009 to 31.10.2016, a total
of 353,271 hernias in 577 centres were recorded
in Herniamed, the German hernia registry. A total
of 71,751 male, primary, fully documented inguinal hernias with complete 1-year follow-up were
evaluated for this analysis. There were no signicant differences between outpatient and inpatient
operations. The intra- and postoperative complications, postoperative pain and recurrences
showed no essential differences despite different
operation techniques and different patient selection (Table18.5).
Overall, this analysis permits the conclusion
that outpatient inguinal hernia surgery can be
performed without signicant detriment for the
patients. Further analyses, possibly matched pair
Table 18.5 Distribution of intra- and postoperative
complications and follow-up data—outpatient and
inpatient [36]
Outpatient %Inpatient
Intraoperative complications 0.61 1.01
Postoperative complications 2.21 2.40
Recurrence on follow-up 0.77 0.90
Rest pain on follow-up 4.01 4.59
Pain with movement on
follow-up
Pain requiring treatment on
follow-up
9.66 8.86
2.23 2.52
%

180
R. Lorenz
or multivariate, are necessary for comparing outpatient and inpatient operations in detail.
Acknowledgment R.Lorenz declares the following con-
icts of interest: C.R. BARD: Consultant for Speakers
Bureau, Hands-On Hernia Training Courses.
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24. Frassanito L, Pitoni S, Gonnella G, Aleri S, Del
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kjae.2017.70.1.46. Epub 2016 Oct 25.
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26. McCormack K, Scott NW, Go PM, Ross S, Grant
AM.Laparoscopic techniques versus open techniques
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press.

Obscure Groin Pain inWomen
ShirinTowgh
19
19.1 History oftheHidden Hernia
The concept of hidden hernias was rst introduced in the 1970s by two separately interested surgeons from the United States: William
Webb from Alabama and Jack Herrington from
Wisconsin. They each noticed that women were
presenting with symptoms suggestive of inguinal hernia; however, the surgeons had a hard
time diagnosing hernia on physical examination.
Their patients reported intermittent pain along
the inguinal canal that was related to physical activity. However, the physical examination
was essentially normal and “without detectable
impulse.”
Webb reported his experience with 12 women
who had symptomatic inguinal hernias without
diagnostic examination ndings. Physical examination was mostly normal. He offered them an
exploration based on their history alone. They
presented similar to most other symptomatic
inguinal hernias: groin pain radiating along the
inguinal canal. He found that these women typically had small indirect inguinal hernias with
preperitoneal fat content only. There was no hernia sac. Repair was successful in all the patients,
with resolution of their preoperative pain.
S. Towgh, MD, FACS
Beverly Hills Hernia Center, Beverly Hills,
CA, USA
e-mail: drtowgh@beverlyhillsherniacenter.com
Over a 5-year period of time, Herrington
operated on 13 such patients (8% of his practice), all of whom were also women. They suffered with groin pain of undiagnosed etiology.
Mean age was 20 years (15–45). Most had
undergone a wide range of gastrointestinal, urologic, and gynecologic workups. Operative ndings were of the typical indirect inguinal hernia,
and most had a peritoneal sac. At 10 months
follow-up, ten (77%) patients had a cure of their
symptoms after open inguinal hernia repair, and
three patients had signicant improvement. He
referred to these as “female occult inguinal hernias” and urged their early diagnosis, as hernia
repair was curative.
The concept of the non-palpable, symptomatic, occult, or hidden hernia did not become
popular despite these groundbreaking reports.
Textbooks continued to report 25% lifetime risk
of inguinal hernias among males and only 2%
risk among females. It wasn’t until Bendavid’s
textbook of Abdominal Wall Hernias that this
topic was readdressed in the twenty-rst century.
Similar to their predecessors, Spangen and
Smedberg reported on 180 women in an 18-year
span with 192 occult hernias. Most were found
to have typical inguinal hernias with peritoneal
sac. However, 57 (30%) had inguinal hernias
with preperitoneal fat content only and no peritoneal extension within the inguinal canal. They
had successful outcomes after hernia repair,
with relief of preoperative symptoms in 89% of
patients, with mean 20 (1–60) months follow-up.
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
G. Campanelli (ed.), The Art of Hernia Surgery, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72626-7_19
183

184
S. Towgh
19.2 Anatomical Explanation
fortheHidden Hernia
Women naturally have a narrower inguinal canal
than men. Essentially, it contains a thin round
ligament and perhaps the genital branch of the
genitofemoral nerve. Conversely, males begin
with a naturally wider inguinal canal that houses
the spermatic cord. Meanwhile, the female pelvis
is broader and shallower. As a result, the insertion
of the internal oblique and transversus abdominis
muscles is broader along Cooper’s ligament and
further onto the rectus muscle. Also, the round
ligament pierces the abdominal wall more laterally and follows a more oblique path within the
inguinal canal. Lastly, the natural forces from
gravity and from internal abdominal pressure are
distributed more evenly along the pelvic oor, as
compared to that in the narrow pelvis of men.
As a result, women tend not to present with
wide palpable defects or signicant bulging from
their hernia. Instead, they present with groin
pain, sometimes with the very smallest amount of
preperitoneal fat entering the narrow inguinal
canal.
On physical examination, men typically have
a palpable if not visible bulge. When standing, an
impulse may be generated by Valsalva or cough.
Using the redundancy of the scrotal skin, the
spermatic cord can be followed toward the external ring, and the rest of the pelvic oor in this
region can be directly palpated. In women, there
is no direct access to the external ring and the
inguinal canal contents. Palpation is made
directly over the inguinal canal at the level of the
skin. Any hernia must be noted through the layers
of skin, soft tissue, and external oblique aponeurosis. If a vaginal examination is performed, the
examiner can sometimes detect a mass via the
vaginal sidewall. This is another reason for the
occult non-palpable hernia.
19.3 Symptoms inWomen
Hernias among women tend to present with a
wide variety of symptoms. As many of these
symptoms are not similar to those typical of men,
it can delay their diagnosis. In my practice, I have
shown that the typical hernia was diagnosed by
me after 20 weeks of presentation. Those with
hidden hernias averaged 96weeks of symptoms.
Typically, the dominant symptoms for hernias
among women are activity-related, such as pain
with lifting heavy objects. Normal daily routines
that cause increased pressure onto the inguinal
canal may also cause pain, such as prolonged sitting, prolonged standing, and bending. The pain
is often worse at the end of the day. Pain may also
be distributed along the distribution of the ilioinguinal and genital nerves, and this can be misinterpreted as primary neuropathic pain. In my
experience, some of these patients undergo local
nerve block to address the neuropathic pain. If a
hernia is the cause of the neuropathic type pain, I
have noted that patients report an increase in their
groin pain after the nerve block, whereas a nerve
block should improve pain in the case of a true
primary nerve injury without a hernia.
Though men do not typically present with
pain as their primary complaint from their inguinal hernia, such is not the trend with women.
Among women, groin pain is often the rst presenting symptom. Many surgeons are trained to
believe that pain alone cannot be due to an inguinal hernia. This may be true among most male
patients; it is not the case in women. As a result,
many women are labelled as having chronic pelvic pain, and inguinal hernia is not considered to
be the cause of their groin pain.
As we already know, smaller hernia defects
tend to present with more pain and less bulging,
whereas larger hernia defects tend to present with
a bulge without as much pain. So it may be the
case that women with inguinal hernias, many of
which are hidden hernias, present with pain as
their original symptom and not with a palpable
bulge. The patient may complain of radiating
pain, which I found to be seen among almost half
(48%) of my patients (Table19.1). This includes
pain radiating pain from the groin into the vagina,
to the upper inner thigh, to the anterior thigh—
but never below the level of the knee—and/or
wrapping around laterally toward the hip and
back. In my experience, 20% of patients have
associated lower back pain that resolves after

19 Obscure Groin Pain inWomen
185
hernia repair. Such patients may be misdiagnosed
with spinal pathology. Notably, patients with
lower back pain do not have groin pain, with the
exception of sacroiliitis, which can cause pain
radiating from the back to the groin and upper
inner thigh.
Also, 39% of my female patients have radiating pain into the vagina (Table19.1). This is analogous to the pain radiating to the base of the
penis and/or testicle in men. Such a complaint
can trigger a gynecologic workup of obscure
diagnoses such as vulvodynia, pudendal neuralgia, and chronic pelvic pain. These diagnoses
often have complex syndromes that are not seen
among patients with inguinal hernia.
Symptoms unique to women include pain during menses. In my practice, 25% of women with
symptomatic inguinal hernias report exacerbation of their symptoms during their menses
(Table19.1). This is considered to be due to uctuations in hormones. As estrogen levels plummet at the onset of menstruation, pain levels
increase. This phenomenon has been shown in
multiple other disease processes, including joint
disorders, autoimmune disorders, and gastrointestinal diseases. In such cases, women are commonly worked up for endometriosis, which is a
cyclical disease. Unlike endometriosis, hernias
are not pain-free in between menstrual periods.
Table 19.1 Key history and examination ndings pre-
dictive of female symptomatic occult inguinal hernia,
with expected outcomes after hernia repair
Symptoms Prevalence
Pain as primary symptom 87%
Radiating quality to the groin pain 48%
– Radiating pain to the vagina 39%
– Radiating pain to lower back 20%
Worse with menses 25%
Pain during intercourse
Pain with orgasm
Examination ndings
Point tenderness over deep internal ring 96–100%
Hyperalgesia along ilioinguinal nerve 63%
Subtle fullness overlying inguinal canal 52%
Pelvic oor spasm
Operative ndings
Preperitoneal fat only, no hernia sac >30%
Signicant improvement in preoperative
symptoms after hernia repair
78–87%
In women, hernias can be painful during sexual intercourse as well as with orgasm. The reason for pain with intercourse is often a simple
phenomenon of direct contact and pressure on
the groin. Similarly, vaginal penetration can
cause pain by direct pressure onto the external
ring, which we noted earlier could be palpable
transvaginally. Pain with orgasm is considered to
be due to pelvic oor contraction against a full
inguinal canal.
19.4 Subtle Physical Examination
Findings
The concept of the occult inguinal hernia is based
on the nding of a symptomatic inguinal hernia
without obvious ndings on physical examination. This includes no visible bulge and no detectable impulse. For example, a cough or Valsalva
will typically not generate a bulging mass on
external examination in this population. That
said, in my experience, 96% of these patients
have point tenderness at the level of the internal
ring upon direct pressure. Spangen similarly
reported 100% with point tenderness overlying
the deep internal ring upon Valsalva. He also
reported 63% with hyperalgesia along the ilioinguinal nerve distribution (Table19.1).
With a very sensitive touch, the examiner can
feel a subtle fullness in the area overlying the
deep internal ring among those with a symptomatic hidden hernia. I have noted this in 52% of my
patients with symptomatic occult inguinal hernias. This represents content and probably
inammation in the area of the inguinal canal. It
is also often tender over the same area. If this area
of vague fullness correlates with the area of pain,
which correlates with the area over the deep
internal ring, we have shown this to be the most
sensitive predictor of a hidden hernia (Fig.19.1).
Many women are rst evaluated for their groin
pain by their gynecologist. Pelvic exam can be
painful on the side of the inguinal hernia. There
may be nding of pelvic oor spasm as well.
Some patients are referred to pelvic oor physical therapy for this reason. In my experience, I
have noted that such therapy exacerbates the

186
Fig. 19.1 Area of maximal tenderness and vague fullness
notable in patients with symptomatic occult inguinal hernias. This area is approximately halfway between the
anterior superior iliac crest and pubic tubercle on each
side
patient’s pain if she has an inguinal hernia and
not primary pelvic oor dysfunction. Also, I have
noted that the pelvic oor spasm resolves after
successful inguinal hernia repair.
Thus, I have come to the conclusion that
inguinal hernias can cause pelvic oor spasm in
women. This results in the sequelae seen with
this entity, including chronic pelvic pain, pain
with sexual intercourse, urinary frequency, feeling of pain, or pressure at the vagina or rectum.
The workup and treatment can be highly varied,
and patients may be misdiagnosed with interstitial cystitis or pelvic oor dysfunction. These disorders are multifactorial and are dened by a
series of objective ndings, such as with cystos-
S. Towgh
copy or dynamic pelvic imaging, respectively.
The workup would be normal in those with inguinal hernia.
Conclusion
Women can have inguinal hernias, and it is
much more prevalent than we are led to believe
historically. Women are more likely than men
to present with groin pain without bulging
mass, hence the term female occult inguinal
hernia or hidden hernia. Carefully listening to
the patient will allow the examiner to identify
key details in their history that are suggestive
of inguinal hernia. The most sensitive examination nding is that of point tenderness over
the area of the deep internal ring. Operative
ndings may show preperitoneal fat content
only, without peritoneal extension.
As more attention is placed on this entity,
more women will be diagnosed, without delay,
with a potential for improvement in their quality of life.
Suggested Readings
1. Fodor PB, Webb WA.Indirect inguinal hernia in the
female with no palpable sac. South Med J. 1971;64:15.
2. Herrington JK. Occult inguinal hernia in the female.
Ann Surg. 1975;181:481–3.
3. Neumayer L, Towgh S.Inguinal hernia. In: Cameron
JL, Cameron AM, editors. Current surgical therapy.
11th ed. NewYork: Elsevier; 2013. p.531–6.
4. Rutkow IM. Epidemiologic, economic, and sociologic aspects of hernia surgery in the United States in
the 1990s. Surg Clin N Am. 1998;78:941–51. v–vi.
5. Saad CA, Kim DS, Solnik MJ, Towgh S. Inguinal
hernia as a cause of chronic pelvic pain: a key sign
to make the diagnosis. Obstet Gynecol. 2015;
125:70S.
6. Spangen L, Smedberg SGG. Nonpalpable inguinal
hernia in women. In: Bendavid R, Abrahamson J,
Arregui ME, etal., editors. Abdominal wall hernias.
NewYork: Springer; 2001. p.625–9.
7. Zarrinkhoo E, Towgh S, Miller J.Hidden hernias as a
cause of chronic pelvic pain. Hernia. 2015;19:S73–6.

Individualization Treatment
ofInguinal Hernia inChildren
JieChen, YingmoShen, ChengbingChu,
ZhenyuZou, andXinYuan
20
The incidence of inguinal hernia in children less
than 18years of age ranges from 0.8 to 4.4% [1].
About 85% of children with an inguinal hernia
present with a unilateral hernia. The incidence of
incarceration in untreated hernias in infants and
young children varies between 6 and 18%, but it
increases to approximately 30% in infancy [2]. A
surgical intervention for inguinal hernia is one of
the most common operations performed in children [3]. The individualized treatment program
was established for pediatric inguinal hernia in
authors’ department and provided a relatively
reasonable surgical treatment. This chapter was
mainly to describe the individualized treatment
program applied to pediatric inguinal hernia.
20.1 Etiology
Indirect inguinal hernias in children are basically
caused by embryologic development, which is
mainly composed of patency of processus vaginalis (Fig.20.1). At the early stage of gestation,
the testes begin to descend from retroperitoneum
and remain at the level of the internal inguinal
rings as the kidney ascends into its usual position.
The nal descent of the testes into the scrotum
through canalis inguinalis occurs between gesta-
tion weeks 28 and 36 [4], combining peritoneum,
transversalis fascia, and abdominal wall muscles.
The testes’ descent is “guided” by the gubernaculums. Descending peritoneum ultimately forms
the processus vaginalis, and the distal portion of
the processus vaginalis wrapping around testes
becomes the tunica vaginalis. In normal development, the processus vaginalis closes between 36
and 40weeks of gestation or even shortly after
birth [5]. The rate of patency is inversely proportional to the age of children, approximately 80%
close by 2years of age [4]. The left testis descends
before the right one, and the closure of patent
processus vaginalis on the left also precedes closure on the right; therefore, indirect inguinal hernia occurs more on the right side.
Though the embryology has been widely
described, the cell-molecular mechanism is still
unclear. The inguinal hernias most probably are
inherited [6]. Yu Zhang etal.’s team have found
that the functional sequence variants of some
genes may be a risk factor for indirect inguinal
hernia, such as gene TBX1, gene TBX3, gene
SIRT1, and gene GATA6. These variants may
affect the differentiation and proliferation of
human skeletal muscles and broblasts [7–10].
20.2 Clinical Manifestation
J. Chen (*) · Y. Shen · C. Chu · Z. Zou · X. Yuan
Department of Hernia and Abdominal Surgery,
Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical
University, Beijing, China
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
G. Campanelli (ed.), The Art of Hernia Surgery, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72626-7_20
A reducible bulge or mass in the inguinal region
or unilateral or bilateral enlargement of the scrotum (Fig.20.2a, b) is the main diagnostic nding
187
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