Профессия – менеджер. Учебно-методическое пособие

The second ingredient is labor, which converts natural resources into

goods.

The number of available workers and, more importantly, their productivity help determine the health of an economy. Throughout its history, the United States has experienced steady growth in the labor force, and that, in turn, has helped fuel almost constant economic expansion. Until shortly after World War I, most workers were immigrants from Europe, their immediate descendants, or African-Americans whose ancestors were brought to the Americas as slaves. In the early years of the 20th century, large numbers of Asians immigrated to the United States, while many Latin American immigrants came in later years.

Although the United States has experienced some periods of high unemployment and other times when labor was in short supply, immigrants tended to come when jobs were plentiful. Often willing to work for somewhat lower wages than acculturated workers, they generally prospered, earning far more than they would have in their native lands. The nation prospered as well, so that the economy grew fast enough to absorb even more newcomers.

The quality of available labor – how hard people are willing to work and how skilled they are – is at least as important to a country's economic success as the number of workers. In the early days of the United States, frontier life required hard work, and what is known as the Protestant work ethic reinforced that trait. A strong emphasis on education, including technical and vocational training, also contributed to America's economic success, as did a willingness to experiment and to change.

Labor mobility has likewise been important to the capacity of the American economy to adapt to changing conditions. When immigrants flooded labor markets on the East Coast, many workers moved inland, often to farmland waiting to be tilled. Similarly, economic opportunities in industrial, northern cities attracted black Americans from southern farms in the first half of the 20th century.

As a result, government leaders and business officials increasingly stress the importance of education and training to develop workers with the kind of nimble minds and adaptable skills needed in new industries such as computers and telecommunications.

But natural resources and labor account for only part of an economic system. These resources must be organized and directed as efficiently as possible. In the American economy, managers, responding to signals from markets, perform this function. The traditional managerial structure in America is based on a top-down chain of command; authority flows from the chief executive in the boardroom, who makes sure that the entire business runs smoothly and efficiently, through various lower levels of management responsible for coordinating different parts of the enterprise, down to the foreman on the shop

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floor. Numerous tasks are divided among different divisions and workers. In early 20th-century America, this specialization, or division of labor, was said to reflect "scientific management" based on systematic analysis.

Many enterprises continue to operate with this traditional structure, but others have taken changing views on management. Facing heightened global competition, American businesses are seeking more flexible organization structures, especially in high-technology industries that employ skilled workers and must develop, modify, and even customize products rapidly. Excessive hierarchy and division of labor increasingly are thought to inhibit creativity. As a result, many companies have "flattened" their organizational structures, reduced the number of managers, and delegated more authority to interdisciplinary teams of workers.

(From U.S. Department of State) [www.read-en]

TEXT B

Economics in China

The official support of a market-based economy that came from Deng Xiao Ping in 1992 has resulted in a more open system of trade for China, and subsequently a huge growth spurt in China's economy. The economic reforms which Deng instigated culminated in a "socialist market economy", a term which was actually incorporated into the Chinese constitution during the National People's Congress in March 1993. Since that time, China's economy has experienced a substantial boost in regards to living standards, quality of food and spendable income.

While these elements expand opportunities for U.S. exporters, factors such as inflationary pressure, irrational foreign exchange controls, and restrictive trade practices have created numerous barriers. In fact, China's official Gross National Product (GNP) posted a 12.8 percent real growth rate in 1992 to about US$435 billion, or about US$371 for each of China's 1.172 billion peopleurban incomes grew at a real rate of 8.8 percent. Rural incomes also grew, but at a slower rate of 5.9 percent.

These figures, however, may be tainted by the disproportionate distribution of income and wealth that permeates China. The Chinese, after all, have lower human rights standards than the United States and the poor definitely suffer the consequences. Add to that the immense size of the Chinese population, and suddenly any estimates of wealth, buying power, or economic conditions appear to be quite diminished in their reliability. In the end, these figures are based on national averages, which create a fictional middle class majority that simply does not exist. Realistically, a very large proportion of China's

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economic growth comes from the collective and private sector, and not the subsidized state sector.

In addition, China continues to maintain an illogical foreign exchange mechanism, utilizing both an official exchange rate and a "swap center" rate, which is influenced even further by the black market rate - none of which can be properly measured. Other barriers include the fact that it can sometimes be hard to decipher the rules regarding license requirements, as well as what type of inspections are required. For those commodities which are still restricted at the central government level, there is also confusion as to which agency has the ultimate authority. These difficulties can be managed, but necessitate perseverance and diligence on the part of U.S. exporters.

The market and price reforms made by the China Communist Party in 1993 also fueled dynamic changes in China's economic environment, especially in regards to agriculture. With the population of China increasing by approximately 17 million people every year, it is easy to see why China can only meet demands by increasing the number of agricultural and food product imports it receives. Today, there are over 80,000 grain and edible oil markets as well as numerous fruit and vegetable markets in China importing products for the domestic market. China has signed agreements which force them to loosen the restrictions on foreign trade, which has had a very positive impact on U.S. trade relations with China, especially in regards to food products.

In China, as in many countries throughout the world, the rise in incomes and living standards has perpetuated a notable increase in the per capita consumption of meat, fruits and vegetables, and most especially, processed and convenience foods is increasing. In major urban markets, and most noticeably in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou, consumers are literally "eating up" fast foods, convenience foods, and packaged food products. The elimination of price subsidies for grain, pork, milk, eggs and other products has caused some increase in price, however this increase has caused little, if any, dissension. This means that not only can Chinese consumers better afford to pay higher prices, but are willing to, in order to increase the number of alternatives that are available to them. Consumers in China today are demanding quality and variety in the food they buy and the U.S. market is more than happy to fulfill their needs. Unfortunately, there are still about 300 million people in China's urban population who have not yet caught up with the rapid growth of the Chinese economy. The good news for U.S. exporters however is that as long as the economic trends in China continue to improve, more and more markets will continue to open up. The bad news is that the high tariffs, technical barriers and general lack of clarity that products of major interest to U.S. exporters, such as beef, nuts, and fruit, have received only minimal reductions in tariffs despite the many promises from China that international trade will be made more cost-efficient. Quarantine barriers also officially prohibit U.S. fruit and

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most fresh vegetables from entering China, due to fear of fruit fly contamination. However efforts are being made to permanently remove all restrictions that cannot be scientifically justified.

China also maintains quotas on many products, but the quotas seem to be somewhat flexible. In truth, figuring out exact quota amounts is often very difficult. Therefore, when evaluating the U.S. market position for consumer ready products, China Customs data is the only source that provides comparable China Import data for the United States and other countries. There is still however a lot of discrepancies in figures, and it is assumed that the China market is larger than indicated by U.S. and Chinese statistics.

While market research is not exactly a prevalent practice in China, some evidence has shown that an American label does significantly help boost product sales. Subsequently, dishonest importers have been known to put U.S. labels on other countries' products because it makes the item sell better. This not only skews statistical data, but could have a strong negative impact on the U.S. economy if the matter were to get out completely out of hand. Labeling requirements are not very restrictive at the moment, but the U.S. and China are working to eradicate this fraudulent behavior being perpetrated. The China market for American products is swiftly freeing itself from strict government control. The amalgamation of rapid economic growth and market reforms is has fueled the interest in American products on the part of the Chinese consumer. It is predicted that the hotel and restaurant industry will continue to be the major market opportunity for U.S. meats, wines, frozen potatoes, condiments and a plethora of other related products. In addition, the telecommunications, financial and other service markets also offer great potential for U.S. exporters. In spite of the plethora of trade restrictions which still limit the overall import market in China, the latest trends are pointing toward simplifying admission into the Chinese market. The number of trade corporations, and factories, for example, has gone sky high in the recent past. Because of its struggling economy, most emphasis in past China trade relations was based on exporting. There is currently is a continually increasing interest in importing products for the domestic market.

Foreign trade corporations that were at one time part of a strict government structure are now able to expand their scope of business and deal in more products and distribute to more outlets than ever before. While still associated with some level of the Chinese government, these corporations must now turn a profit and are subsequently becoming more active in importing U.S. products. In virtually all cases, these importers are also distributors. This has introduced an element of competition in the import sector that did not exist just a few years ago. It also means that at least some of these potential importers/distributors are not familiar with U.S. products or international trading practices. . In addition, the elimination of price controls and the establishment

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of wholesale markets has allowed China to achieve a better balance between supply and demand. One of the most recent notable developments in regards to China's trade regulations is that, China and the U.S. finally signed a deal which allowed China to enter the World Trade Organization. This agreement will benefit the U.S. in a number of ways, including the new freedom of foreign investors to partake in China‘s internet market, and manufacturers are now allowed to import and export their products without overt governmental interference.

Economic reform and the establishment of a "socialist market economy" have virtually revolutionized trade between our two countries. Therefore it is vital that good relations with China are maintained so that both economies can experience the benefits of higher quality living.

(From ww.caca.essortment.com/economicschina_rjns.htmEconomics in China) [www.read-en]

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ЛИТЕРАТУРА И ИНТЕРНЕТ-РЕСУРСЫ

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13.http://economics.about.com

14.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam Smith

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Зубцова Людмила Кирамовна

The career of a manager

Профессия – менеджер

(учебно-методическое пособие на английском языке)

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