Грамматические модели. Grammar charts. Учебное пособие

ББК 81.432.1-2-923 О-313

Рецензенты:

А. А. Глибина, канд. филол. наук, доцент НВИ ВНГ РФ О. В. Москвина, канд. психол. наук, доцент НГТУ

Работа подготовлена на кафедре международных отношений и регионоведения

для студентов направления 41.03.01«Зарубежное регионоведение» / для слушателей курсов по гуманитарным направлениям в системе ДПО НГТУ

Оверчук Л. А.

О-313 Грамматические модели : Grammar charts: учебное пособие / Л. А. Оверчук. – Новосибирск : Изд-во НГТУ, 2025. – 40 с.

ISBN 978-5-7782-5499-2

В пособии даны справочные материалы на английском языке, предназначенные для повторения и систематизации грамматики, необходимой для овладения речевыми видами деятельности (устной и письменной речью). Основные грамматические структуры представлены в виде моделей с примерами на английском языке.

Данное пособие предназначено как для аудиторной работы под руководством преподавателя, так и для самостоятельной работы обучающихся.

ББК 81.432.1-2-923

Оверчук Людмила Анатольевна ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЕ МОДЕЛИ

GRAMMAR CHARTS

Учебное пособие

В авторской редакции

Выпускающий редактор И.П. Брованова Дизайн обложки А.В. Ладыжская Компьютерная верстка Л.А. Веселовская

Налоговая льгота – Общероссийский классификатор продукции Издание соответствует коду 95 3000 ОК 005-93 (ОКП)

____________________________________________________________________________________

Подписано в печать 31.10.2025. Формат 60 × 84 1/8. Бумага офсетная. Тираж 50 экз. Уч.-изд. л. 9,3. Печ. л. 5,0. Изд. № 139. Заказ № 216. Цена договорная

____________________________________________________________________________________

Отпечатано в типографии Новосибирского государственного технического университета

630073, г. Новосибирск, пр. К. Маркса, 20

2

WORD ORDER is inflexible, due to minimum grammar endings in English.

Direct Word Order in Statements (=in Positive or Negative Sentences):(+/-) The Subject +V

In negative sentences the Auxiliary verb (Aux) + ‘not’ or negative word is usually used before

Note: There is only one negative part in the sentence: ‘not’ or negative word. When we use a negative word to make negative statement, then the verb is positive (=without ‘not’).

e.g. This hunter never killed any tigers.

Inverted Word Order in Questions (=in Interrogative Sentences): (?) Aux+ The Subject

______________________________________________

*S: the subject is compulsory in any sentence (except Imperatives / Exclamations, etc.)

*his: =possessive adjective is usual before a noun (to show ownership) (see Pronouns: Application 1)

*(T): ‘time’ may be at the beginning of the sentence

*Aux: helping verb (if there is no other helping verb in the sentence, it is the verb to do in Pr./ P.Simple)

*v: the notional part of the Predicate (verbal or nominal), it doesn’t change in time

*Wh.: any question word (or group of words)

*Wh.(=s): aux. to do isn’t used, the full verb is used after Who/What as a subject (=direct word order) *or: or is used between any homogeneous parts of the sentence: S/ V/ O/ M/ P/ T

4

Formal (=Compound) Subject

In impersonal sentences (=without the ‘doer’ of the action) we use Formal Subject on the 1st place, which is not usually translated (the ‘real’ subject is after the Predicate then).

e.g. There is a mistake in your dictation. It is a beautiful day. It’s half past seven.

The person and number of the verb in the Predicate depend on the ‘real’ subject of the sentence. If we list two or more ‘real’ subjects, the verb will depend on the first one which is used:

e.g. This is a notebook and two pens. There are two boys and one girl on the playground.

Object

The typical order of objects in the sentence:

Note: When they change (e.g. for emphatic use), indirect object becomes prepositional (prep.) e.g. I gave the book (d.) to him (prep.) (Notice the emphasis on the ‘book’)

Attribute

Note: When a noun is used as an attribute, it doesn’t have a plural form: e.g. a two-hour film

Attributive Adjective (+N)

If there are many adjectives before the noun, the word order of adjectives is usually as following: «Opsshacom» (opinion, size, shape, age, colour, origin, material)*

* It’s not a usual way to use more than two or three adjectives before a noun. e.g. an elegant French clock; a small round red button.

5

DEGREES of COMPARISON

Comparison of Adjectives

*: clever, cruel, friendly, gentle, narrow, pleasant, polite, shallow, simple, stupid, quiet – can be both with -er, -est / more…, the most…e.g. clever – cleverer – the cleverest / – more clever – the most clever.

Note: 1. The Comparative degree is usually used with ‘than’ (=between two objects) and the Superlative degree is used with prepositions ‘in/of’ (=between three or more objects in a group or place). e.g. He is taller than me. He is the tallest in our family/ of us. 2. We can use some intensifiers: ‘much /far /a lot /a great deal /a bit /a little’ + comparative degree: e.g. much longer time, far more exciting book; a most (=’very’) + positive degree: e.g. a most interesting book

Comparison of Adverbs

The use of –er, -est / more…, the most… in the comparative and superlative degrees of adverbs will also depend on the number of syllables (see: Comparison of Adjectives).

e.g. fast – faster – the fastest, early – earlier – the earliest, carefully – more carefully – the most carefully

Note: Not all the adverbs get endings -ly (we use fast, hard, late, straight as both adjectives and adverbs). Some adjectives ending in -ly have no adverb forms: friendly, lovely, lonely, silly, ugly, instead we can use them in an adverbial structure ‘in a…way’. e.g. He smiled in a friendly way.

Irregular Forms of Comparison

Note: 1.‘far– further – the furthest’: this adjective/ adverb has also meaning as ‘extra, additional’. e.g. further information; can’t talk any further

2. ‘old – elder – the eldest’ = for people only. (But: you can’t say – ‘elder than’.)

Other Types of Comparison

– As/so (positive degree) as: e.g. He is as/ so tall as his brother.

– Twice/half as (positive degree) as: e.g. He is paid half as much money as I am.

– Not so/as (positive degree) as: e.g. She isn’t so/as fast as Sally.

– The (comparative degree), the (comparative degree): e.g. The later you come, the better.

6

THE VERB

There are 2 types of Verbs in English: Helping Verb (Auxiliary Verb, Modal Verb, Linking Verb) and Full* Verb and 4 types of Verbals (Infinitive, Gerund, Participle I, Participle II).

Note: There are also such contractions for the Verbs as: V1 – ‘the Base Form of the Full Verb’ (=without endings), V2 – ‘the Past Form of the Full Verb’ (=column 2 in the table for irregular verbs, V1+-(e)d – for regular verbs), V3 – Participle II (= column 3 in the table for irregular verbs, V1+-(e)d – for regular verbs), V4 – Participle I (=V1+ ing), V5 – ‘the Third Person Singular of the Full Verb’ (= V1+-(e)s)

System of Tenses (=Time & Aspect)

Time:

Use of Auxiliaries and Verbals in the System of Tenses

*–(e)s in the3rd person singular present (with ‘he, she, it’)

**see: equivalents for past and future forms in Modal Verbs

___________________________

*Full Verb includes Dynamic Verbs and Stative Verbs.

7

The Active Voice* – 12 Tense Forms (= the 4 Aspects of the Full Verb (Simple, Progressive,

Perfect, Perfect Progressive) in the Present (Pr.), Past (P.), Future (F.) Time)

Note: Time is shown by changing the Full Verb or the Auxiliary verb, not the Verbal.

The Passive Voice** – 8 Tense Forms (= the 3 Aspects of the Verb ‘to Be’: Simple, Progressive (except Future), Perfect, in the Present (Pr.), Past (P.), Future (F.) Time)

+ P II (=Participle II of the Full Verb)

1.Passive voice is only for transitive verbs [T] that can be followed by objects, not for intransitive ones [I] (as they are not followed by any objects). e.g. [I] go, rise/arise, etc.

We can’t use in the Passive some transitive state verbs. e.g. [T] become, fit, get, have, lack, let, like, resemble, suit, etc. e.g. They lack of generosity.

Always in the Passive are: to be born, to be populated, etc. e.g. He was born in London.

2.If there are two objects in the sentence, direct (what?) and inderect (whom?), the inderect object of the sentence in the Active voice usually becomes the subject of the sentence in the Passive voice. e.g. They gave (whom?) me (what?) an apple. I was given an apple. (or: An apple was given to me. = An emphatic change of focus from a person to an object.)

If the prepositional object becomes the subject, the preposition is placed after the verb.

e.g. They are talking about their holidays. Their holidays are being talked about.

3. The following prepositions are used for the ‘agent’ of the sentence: by – for people and moving objects, with – for the other objects (=instruments and materials): e.g. The letter was written by him. The letter was written with a pencil. It is being sent by helicopter.

4. Some active verbs have passive meaning. e.g. The sign on the door read "No entry".

_________________________________

*Active Voice: when the ‘doer’ of the action is known. =The ‘doer’ is expressed by the Subject.

**Passive Voice: when the ‘doer’ of the action is not known or important. =The ‘object’ of the action becomes the Subject of the Passive sentence. (See Active and Passive Tense Forms for all types of sentences (interrogative/ negative/ positive) in Application 3 and Irregular verbs in Application 4.)

8

The Ways of Talking About the Future

(=Future Simple, Be Going to, Present Progressive, Be About to, Present Simple)

The Ways of Talking About the Past

(=Present Perfect and Past Simple)

9

REPORTED SPEECH

To report direct speech, we usually don’t express the ‘same or exact words’ said by the author, but the ‘same meaning’. Note: there are no quotation marks in reported speech.

Reporting Verbs ‘Tell/ Say’ in Statements

Tell + smb + smth Say + to smb + smth

e.g. Alan told me (that) he was going abroad. Alan said to me (that) he was going abroad.

Changes in Reported Statements

1. The change of speakers (=the change of pronouns):

2. The change of tenses depending on time of reporting verb (=‘The Sequence of Tenses in the Reported Speech’):

If the reporting verb is in the Present (He says …), the other verbs in the sentence can be in different times.

If the reporting verb is in the Past (He said …), the other verbs in the reported sentence should be in the Past tenses. The rule is ‘one tense back’:

Note: Past Perfect, Conditionals II, III (would, could) and ‘used to’ do not change tense.

Change of Tenses (=if the reporting verb is in the past)

Pr.

P.

F.

*Past stays Past Simple if the time of speech and action were simultaneous or changes to Past Perfect if the action was prior to the time of speech (=the same for Past Progressive)

10