Грамматические модели. Grammar charts. Учебное пособие

3. The change of time expressions (if there are some):

Changes for Questions in Reported Speech Apart from the three changes occurred in Reported Statements, in reported questions we also change the indirect word order to direct:

Note: The same rule is for Polite (=Indirect) Questions.

They usually begin with an introductory part: Do you know…? I don’t suppose you know… Do you happen to know…?I wonder… Can/could you tell me…? I don’t know…, etc.

To Report Requests/Orders we use some introductory verbs (‘to ask’ =polite request, ‘to tell’ =request/order, ‘to order’ =strict order/command, ‘to beg’ =a very strong/ urgent request) that are followed by positive or negative to-infinitive.

Some Introductory Verbs are followed by

to-infinitive: agree, claim, demand, offer, promise, refuse, threaten; e.g. She refused to lend me the money.

smb. + to-infinitive: advise, beg, command, encourage, forbid, invite, remind, warn; e.g. I advised her to visit a doctor.

-ing form: admit (to), accuse smb. of, apologise for, boast about/ of, complain (to smb.) of, deny, insist on, suggest;

e.g. He admitted (to) stealing the car.

that-clause: agree, boast, claim, complain, deny, explain, inform, promise, suggest. e.g. She claimed that she knew his address.

11

THE NOUN is used with or without determiners: articles, pronouns, numerals, prepositions,

adjectives. There are four kinds of nouns in English: common nouns (dog, table), proper nouns (Samuel, France), abstract nouns (love, beauty) and collective nouns (police, team).

Countable/Uncountable Common Nouns

Countable nouns [C] can be used in the plural form (=of people, animals, things, etc.).

Note: The verb is used only in plural form with some collective nouns. e.g. The police have come.

Uncountable nouns [U] (=abstract nouns: e.g. peace, friendship, hate, etc. and mass nouns: e.g. milk, sugar, meat, etc.) have neither plural forms nor article a/an, instead words ‘some any/no, a piece of’ are used: e.g. some information, a piece of information.

Mind that some nouns are uncountable [U] in English: e.g. advice, fruit, knowledge, luggage, money, news, travel, work, etc.

Note: The verb is used in singular form with uncountable nouns. e.g. There is some good news.

Quantity Words

–for plural nouns [C] – many, few, a few

–for nouns [U] – much, little, a little

–for both ([C] pl./ [U]) – a lot of, plenty of, some, any, no

Pronouns Some/ Any/ No

Notice use of ‘some’ in interrogative sentences and ‘any’ in positive sentences: e.g. Would you like something to eat? (=It’s an offer, not a question)

– Do you like some rock-music? -I like any rock-music. (= It doesn’t matter which)

Possessive Case of Nouns (=Whose?)

Pavlov’s family album, son’s name, the Allens’ house, my mother-in-law’s garden, Tim and Poly’s son

Note: 1. Possessive case is only for living beings, preposition ‘of’ is used with the objects. e.g. a roof of the house. (But: time periods or distances can be used in possessive case. e.g. a mile’s distance, an hour’s wait.)

2. To indicate ownership we can use double possessive (N+of + possessive N. or Pron.). e.g. Laura is a friend of Sue’s. Robert is a friend of mine. (=one of their friends).

12

THE ARTICLE (=Indefinite, Definite and “Zero” Article)

The Indefinite Article (=’A/ An’)

’A/ an’ is only used with singular countable nouns: ‘a’ in front of a word that begins with a consonant sound (a [p] postcard, a [j] university), ‘an’ in front of a word that begins with a vowel sound (an [ai] idea, an [o] honest man, an [e] MA). With uncountable nouns article ‘a/an’ cannot be used, pronoun ‘some’ is used instead: e.g. I need some information.

Use of ‘a/ an’:

–when talking about a person or a thing for the first time; e.g. He bought a house.

Function: identification (=‘some’)

–after the link verb ‘be’/’have’ to say what someone is (by profession) or has; e.g. He became a school teacher. She was an artist. She has a daughter.

Function: representation (=professions/ possessions)

–when a noun is used with an adjective or is followed by a qualifier (a prepositional phrase/ a relative clause);

e.g. It was a really beautiful house. The information was taken from an article on biology. I chose a picture that reminded me of my own city.

Function: qualifying

–to mean ‘one’ with some numbers, fractions, money, weights, time and measures (a hundred, a quarter, a dollar, a kilo, a day, a litre (Am.: liter), a tea/ a cup of tea);

e.g. I’ll come in an hour. e.g. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. Function: numerical (=quantity/ frequency)

–speaking about things in general, meaning ‘any’ (=in the group or class);

e.g. A giraffe is an animal with a tall neck. Function: generalization (=’any’)

(But: the nouns ‘man/ woman’ are used without articles in this case e.g. Woman is physically weaker than man.)

– in expressions ‘What a…/ such a…’ (with countable nouns in singular)

e.g. What a beautiful day! It was such a boring film. (But: What (-) wonderful weather!= [U]) Function: intensifying

The Indefinite Article in Some Expressions

13

The Definite Article (=’The’)

The is used both with countable (singular or plural) and uncountable nouns to show that a noun belongs to one of the following categories of objects:

–unique (space objects, historical/sport events, ships’ names, famous buildings, places, world regions, poles, dates, periods);

e.g. the Moon, the Sun, the Universe, the French Revolution, the World Cup, “The Queen Mary” (of a ship), the Eiffel Tower, the Vatican, the Middle East, the Arctic/Antarctic, the North/South Pole, the 11th of September, fashion of the 60-s

– natural (coast, countryside, sky, ground, jungle, sea-side, weather, world, equator, cardinal points (=nouns, not adjectives or adverbs), etc.);

e.g. the beach, in the east (the East =political) (But: go south =an adverb)

–cultural/ art (musical instruments, dances, cinemas, theatres, hotels, restaurants, museums) or public (institutions, press, organizations, parties, titles (=without names));

e.g. the flute, the samba, the Odeon, the Hilton, the Natural Museum, the Academy of Art, the Economist, the UN, the Democratic Party, the President (But: President Roosevelt)

–national/ political (parts of the country, city, names of political division in the name of the country (=federation, republic, kingdom, states, etc.));

e.g. the village, the station, the airport etc., the Russian Federation, the Czech Republic, the UK, the USA

–groups (of islands, mountains, people, nationalities, family members); e.g. the Orkney Islands, the Alps, the poor, the British, the Browns

–basins (of rivers, seas, oceans, deserts, canals, lakes (=without the word ‘Lake’)); e.g. the Thames, the North Sea, the Atlantic, the Sahara Desert, the Suez Canal, the Ontario (But: Lake Ontario);

–specific or known (from the situation);

e.g. The book that I gave you yesterday is very interesting. This is the house that Jack built. My wife does the chores: the shopping and the cooking. (But: She likes go shopping. =as usual activity/hobby)

–general (=usually about the class of animals and plants, in singular); e.g. The elephant is found in Asia and in Africa.

–limiting (=with superlatives, ordinals, nouns with ‘of’, before limiting adjectives ‘only, last, same, main, central, next, final’, etc.);

e.g. the most intelligent, the first, the Valley of Kings, the city of Moscow, the same colour

–technical/ innovative.

e.g. We heard the news on the radio. Turn off the television, please. (But: no article with TV as the means of communication. e.g. We watched the news on television.) Surf the Internet.

The Definite Article in Some Expressions

14

Zero Article (-)

The article is omitted before

– individual names:

1.Proper names (of people, countries, cities, companies, etc.), objects named after people or places (=airports, buildings and institutions) and titles with the names;

e.g. Paolo, France (But: the Netherlands), Vancouver (But: the Hague, the Ruhr), Sony, McDonald’s, Glasgow Airport, Cambridge University, St. Paul’s Cathedral, Doctor Brown

2. Names of days, months, colours, etc;

e.g. Sunday, April the 3rd. Red is a bright colour.

3.Individual named geographical objects (mountains, islands, continents, etc.); e.g. Mount Everest, Malta, Asia

4.Names for the parts of the city (streets, squares, bridges, parks, stations), the country and

the continent.

e.g. Oxford Street, Cambridge Road (But: the High Street, the Strand, the A11), George Square, Tower Bridge (But: the Golden Gate Bridge), Central Park, King’s Cross Station, South-East France, Central Europe

– usual or everyday activities of people:

1.Sports, games, holidays, subjects, languages (not followed by the word ‘language’), music, using transport, the way of going, communicating, the place of travelling;

e.g. play polo/ chess, at Christmas, study Maths/ Spanish (But: the Spanish language), listen to music, go by bus/ on foot, by phone/ on TV(=‘message', not ‘the object itself’), at sea

2. Names of meals and drinks;

e.g. When would you like to have breakfast? I’ll have cocktail and coffee. (But: we use the when we specify. e.g. I enjoyed the dinner we had last night. Also: we use a/an if there is an adjective before. e.g. They had a large breakfast.)

3.About your own home, father/mother, town, work; e.g. Mum is home now. I’ll go to town. I can’t miss work.

4.Names of institutions if we refer to the purpose of activity for which they exist.

e.g. go to school/university/church/hospital, etc. (But if refer to the place, not the purpose of activity: e.g. His mother is going to the school to see his teacher. The lawyer is in the court.)

– grammar cases:

1.When you can’t use ‘a/an’: with uncountable and plural countable nouns taken in general, meaning ‘any’;

e.g. Lions are dangerous. Indifference and pride look very much alike. Milk is useful for children.

2. If there are other determiners before noun: possessive, interrogative, demonstrative and limiting adjectives, quantifiers and numerals, etc.

e.g. That is my car. Whose book is this? This book is mine. There are no buses in the street. It was last year. All day. Both parents. Kind of joke. Our train leaves from platform five.

Note: we usually don’t leave singular countable noun without a determiner. e.g. It’s a/ his car.

15

MODAL VERBS

The Modal verbs are followed by the infinitives without to (=bare infinitives, in all their forms (see Forms of Verbals)) and express not the actions but the attitude to them, such as possibility, willingness, ability, obligation, certainty, permission, etc:

Note: To talk about the things that possibly happened or didn’t happen in the past we can use modals + perfect infinitive (=have + Participle II).

e.g. He might have missed his train. (Perhaps he missed his train.) e.g. She could have called the police. (But she didn’t)

Modals are “defective” verbs as they have no infinitives, present ending -s in the 3rd person singular, future forms (‘must’ have no past form either), and so it is necessary to use their equivalents. e.g. I’d like to be able to skate. You will be allowed to use the dictionary.

Modals and Their Equivalents

Note the meaning: Mustn’t = you can’t ( it’s forbidden/ you aren’t allowed)

Don’t have to=you needn’t /you don’t need to (it’s not necessary)

Other Functions of Modals

– giving advice (should/ought to);

e.g. I don’t think you should worry so much. You ought to think about your family.

– polite requests (can/could, will/would);

e.g. Can/could (will/would) you tell me the time, please? I wonder/ I would be grateful if you could call me.

– offers (shall, can/could, will/would);

e.g. Shall I help you? Will you have dinner with us? Could I carry that bag for you?

– suggestions (shall, let’s, can/could);

e.g. Shall we stay at home? Let’s watch TV. We could go to the cinema.

– past habits (would /used to).

e.g. When we were children, we would /used to play Cowboys together. My grandfather used to be a policeman.

16

THE VERBAL

There are four verbals in the English language: the Infinitive, the Gerund, Participle I (=the Present/Active Participle), Participle II (=the Past/Passive Participle). They can’t be a predicate in the sentence but only a part of it (=non-changeable), used with the auxiliary verb which changes according to the tense, person, number. (See: Use of Auxiliaries and Verbals)

e.g. I am translating. – Participle I (=the part of the predicate in Continuous) I have translated. – Participle II (=the part of the predicate in Perfect)

I began translating. – The Gerund (=the part of the compound predicate) I will translate. – The Infinitive (=the part of the predicate in Future)

I can translate. – The Infinitive (=the part of the predicate with Modals)

Verbals can express the features of nouns, adverbs and adjectives, being the Subject, Object, Attribute and Adverbial Modifier in the sentence.

e.g. To read is more useful than to watch TV. (The Infinitive = Subject) We prefer reading to watching TV. (The Gerund = Object)

Smiling, she greeted her friend. (Participle I = Adverbial Modifier) The coffee was too hot to drink. (The Infinitive = Adverbial Modifier) It’s a boring film. (Participle I = Attribute)

I’m bored. (Participle II = Predicative Adjective)

In comparison to the Participle I, the Gerund can be used after

– prepositional phrases;

e.g. He insisted on writing the test. Revise the rule of finding the roots.

–possessive case of nouns /possessive pronouns; e.g. We learned about Peter’s/his coming to us.

–negative pronoun no.

e.g. No smoking!

Forms of Verbals

*There are two forms of the Infinitive: the To-Infinitive and Bare Infinitive (=without ‘to’ )

Note: Non-perfect forms of the verbals express simultaneous actions with the main verb, perfect forms express prior actions to it.

e.g. I am glad to study at a musical school. /I was glad to study at a musical school when I was young.

e.g. I am glad to have studied at a musical school. (= I’m glad now that I had studied at a musical school earlier.)

17

The Use of Verbals

to-Infinitive after

Bare Infinitive after

the Gerund after

the Infinitive/ the Gerund with the difference of meaning after

Bare Infinitive /the Gerund with the difference of meaning after

18

Constructions with Verbals

*with the verbs of perception (see, hear, notice, watch, listen, etc.) we use Infinitive without to or

Participle I: e.g. We saw him write/writing an article. (=mind the difference in meaning) **begin your translation with the verb (usually passive), not the subject.

e.g. Известно, что он пишет статью.

Passive (=in the meaning) Constructions with Verbals

the Gerund after ‘object + need’

– smth. needs doing (= smth. needs to be done)

e.g. The batteries in the radio need changing. (=they need to be changed)

PII after ‘have + object’

– have smth. done (=to be done by somebody else for you)

e.g. I have my hair cut. (=it is cut by somebody else, not by me)

19

CONDITIONALS (=Shift of tenses in real/ unreal sentences)

‘If’ – Conditionals

Note: 1. When the main clause precedes the If-clause, there is no comma. e.g. I’ll stay home if it rains.

2. Conjunction ‘if’ may introduce object clause, not the conditionals.

e.g. I wonder if they will be comfortable there. (=there is no condition, Future Simple is possible)

3. In mixed conditionals type II and type III are combined.

e.g. If she were more concentrated, she would not have made so many mistakes in that test.

Conditionals Without ‘If’, when using:

–‘unless’ (=if…not), ‘as/so long as’ (=only if), ‘provided/providing that’ (=if); e.g. Unless you put on some sun cream, you‘ll be sun burnt.

You can borrow my camera as long as you are careful with it. I’ll go to the party, provided you go too.

–time clauses (when, before, as soon as…);

e.g. When I see Sally, I’ll invite her to the party.

– inversion;

e.g. Had he asked me (=If he had asked me), I would have helped him

– ‘wish’ clauses (=If only);

e.g. I wish I had a car. (but I don’t)

I wish I hadn’t stayed out so late. (but I did)

– expressions (It’s (about) time you… I would rather you…, etc.). e.g. It’s (about) time you cleaned your room. (but you don’t)

I’d rather you didn’t open the window. (but you do)

20