English for post-graduate students. Entrance exam. Учебное пособие

Informally, a «philosophy» may refer to a general world view or to a specific ethic or belief.

There is some broad agreement that philosophy is characterized by a certain method, subject matter, and objectives.

Philosophy has a critical or skeptical nature. Philosophers try wherever possible to examine and criticize beliefs that are commonly taken for granted.

Philosophy students are taught not to take anything on trust, «particularly if it seems obvious and undeniable» (Hodges). Rather, they are encouraged to provide good reasons for any conclusions they come to.

The role of empirical experimentation in philosophy is questionable. Some philosophers believe that philosophy is not experimental. These philosophers may believe that philosophy does not employ the methods of empirical science, and its questions cannot be answered by observation or experiment, although observation and experiment may prompt those questions. However, this was not the attitude taken by ancient Hellenistic philosophers, who saw any intellectual investigation as philosophy. Quite the opposite: science in general used to be known as «natural philosophy».

Philosophy generally concerns itself with what are sometimes called «the big questions». For example: «What is the meaning of life? How did the world begin? Do I have a soul? Will my soul survive my death? What really exists? Could nothing have ever existed?»

Philosophers disagree on the goal of philosophical enquiry. Those attracted to the «big questions» say the point of philosophy is to discover the absolutely fundamental reasons behind everything, or to unify and transcend the insights given by science and religion. Others say that, at most, the goal of philosophy is to make explicit, or to clarify, the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs. Indeed, the unifying goal behind philosophical inquiry may simply be the process of thinking through interesting questions.

Rather than merely using the concepts that are usually employed in everyday life in thinking about the world, philosophy also makes those concepts themselves

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the object of study. Philosophy, in this respect, may involve thinking about thinking.

There is no universal agreement about which subjects are the main branches of philosophy. The Aristotelian division was as follows:

1 First philosophy (metaphysics), of which the main area is ontology (the study of kinds of existence or being).

2 Cosmology. This includes the nature of material substance, of quality and quantity, of space, causation, and change.

3 Psychology. This is a much wider and more «philosophical» subject than the modern subject of the same name, encompassing the philosophy of perception, the theory of knowledge, and the nature of the soul (now similar to what is called

«philosophy of mind»).

Aristotle regarded ethics and politics not as parts of theoretical philosophy at all, but as practical disciplines. Logic he regarded as theoretical, but not as a science in its own right, since it is a necessary preliminary to all knowledge.

The modern classification, which originates with Christian Wolff, is into four main branches: logic, epistemology, ethics, and metaphysics. Aesthetics is often considered as a fifth branch, though it is also sometimes included with ethics as «value theory» in modern philosophy departments.

Logic: What is truth? How or why do we identify a statement as true or false? And, how do we reason?

Epistemology: Is knowledge possible? How do we know what we know? How do we take what is «known» to extrapolate what is «unknown»?

Ethics: Is there a difference between morally right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference? Which actions are right and which wrong? Are values absolute, or relative? In general or particular terms, how should I live? How is right and wrong defined? Is there an ultimate «ought»? Is there a normative value or objective that supersedes all others? Are values 'in' the world like tables and chairs and if not how should we understand their ontological status?

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Metaphysics: What is reality, and what exists? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the nature of thought and thinking? What is it to be a person?

Aesthetics: What is it to be beautiful? How do beautiful things differ from the everyday? What is Art? Does true beauty exist?

There are many overlapping issues between the categories.

However, these five broad categories are not the only areas of philosophical inquiry. Politics (seen by Aristotle as part of ethics), physics, geology, biology, meteorology, astronomy, etc., were all originally part of philosophy. The Greeks, through the influence of Socrates and his method, developed a tradition of analysis that divided a subject into its components in order better to understand it. Use of this method is what made those subjects philosophical; and since many subjects made use of that method, the scope of philosophical material was wide. In addition, a number of subfields of philosophy have enjoyed contemporary focus and research.

One way to distinguish the thinker who is pursuing philosophy from a person making an ordinary inquiry about the world is to ask the question, «does this person throughout his or her life consistently address concerns of logic, epistemology, ethics and aesthetics, and ontology and metaphysics, or does he or she advance his or her thoughts without regard for the systematic relationships between these areas of inquiry»? Someone who pursued only logic without thinking of ethics, or epistemology without thinking of aesthetics, could hardly be called a philosopher [11].

►Here are some more examples of the texts that can be also included into the entrance exam. Read the texts carefully, do the exercises and get ready to reproduce the content.

3.7 Text 7

►Вам предстоит прочитать текст, рассказывающий о том, как психологи могут изучать человеческий разум. Прочитайте и выучите новые ключевые слова из текста.

Ключевые слова (Key words)

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33 enormous - громадный, огромный

► Прочитайте и переведите текст, используя словарь.

How Do Psychologists Study the Mind?

Psychology is the science of the mind and behaviour. The human mind is perhaps the most complex and unique field of study, and has been a puzzle to humankind for hundreds of years. The human mind is the source of all thought, behaviour, emotions, interactions, and it determines how we conduct ourselves in society.

The mind is highly complex and enigmatic. Many wonder how psychologists can study such an abstract and extremely sophisticated thing. Even if scientists look inside the brain, as in an autopsy or during a surgical operation, all they see is gray matter (the brain). Thoughts, cognition, emotions, memories, dreams, perceptions, etc. cannot be seen physically, like a skin rash or heart defect.

Experts say that the approach to psychology is not that different to other sciences. As in other sciences, experiments are devised to confirm or disprove theories or expectations. For a psychologist, human behaviour is used as evidence - or at least an indication - of how the mind functions. We are unable to observe the mind directly; however, virtually all our actions, feelings and thoughts are influenced by the functioning of our minds. That is why human behaviour is used as raw data for testing psychological theories on how the mind functions.

German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt opened the first experimental psychology labs in the late 1800s. Since that time we have learned an enormous amount about the relationship between brain, mind, memory and behaviour [12].

►Ответьте на вопросы, основываясь на содержании прочитанного текста.

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•What determines our behaviour?

•Can scientists see human mind?

•What do psychologists use to test their theories?

•Who opened the first psychology laboratory?

►Ответьте на вопросы, выразив собственное мнение.

•Why is it difficult to study human mind?

•What is the essence of the psychological experiment?

3.8 Text 8

►Вам предстоит прочитать текст, популярно рассказывающий о том, что такое психология, и для чего нужна эта наука. Прочитайте и выучите ключевые слова из текста.

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► Прочитайте и переведите текст, используя словарь.

What Is Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. Psychologists observe and record how people and other animals relate to one another and to the environment. They look for patterns that will help them understand and predict behaviour, and they use scientific methods to test their ideas. Through such studies, psychologists have learned much that can help people fulfill their potential as human beings and increase understanding between individuals, groups, nations, and cultures.

Psychology is a broad field that explores a variety of questions about thoughts, feelings, and actions. Psychologists ask such questions as: «How do we see, hear, smell, taste, and feel? What enables us to learn, think, and remember, and why do we forget? What activities distinguish human beings from other animals? What abilities are we born with, and which must we learn? How much does the mind affect the body, and how does the body affect the mind? For example, can we change our heart rate or temperature just by thinking about doing so? What can our dreams tell us about our needs, wishes, and desires? Why do we like the people we like? What is mental illness?»

The research findings of psychologists have greatly increased our understanding of why people behave as they do. For example, psychologists have discovered much about how personality develops and how to promote healthy development. They have some knowledge of how to help people change bad habits and how to help students learn. They understand some of the conditions that can make workers more productive. A great deal remains to be discovered.

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Nevertheless, insights provided by psychology can help people function better as

individuals, friends, family members, and workers [13].

►Ответьте на вопросы, основываясь на содержании прочитанного

текста.

•What is psychology?

•What do psychologists do?

•What does psychology explore?

•What kind of questions do psychologists ask?

•Why do we need psychological research?

•How can psychology help us?

►Ответьте на вопросы, выразив собственное мнение.

•Why do you want to become a professional psychologist?

•What is your favourite topic in psychology?

•When do you think a person should consult a psychologist?

4 Реферирование газетной статьи

На этапе подготовки к вступительному экзамену для реферирования статьи на английском языке достаточно обозначить основную идею содержания прочитанного. При этом желательно придерживаться рекомендаций и плана реферирования, представленных ниже.

Содержание статьи при реферировании излагается объективно, без критической оценки содержания с позиции реферирующего. Придельный объем - сокращение текста оригинала от 3 до 10 раз.

В процессе реферирования происходит существенная переработка содержания, композиции, языка оригинала: выделяются главные факты и излагаются. Язык и стиль оригинала претерпевают изменения в сторону нормативности, нейтральности, простоты и лаконичности. Реферирование -

это не простой набор ключевых фрагментов текста, на базе которого он строится, а новый самостоятельный текст. Текст должен быть связным, что осуществляется посредством слов-связок (Приложение Д).

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Объем текста реферирования: вступление 2-4 предложения, основное содержание 8-10 предложений, в заключение 2-4 предложения и

заключительное предложение.

4.1 Exemplary plan of the rendering

►Read the article.

►State the problem (the information about the source: where this article is taken from; the author: who is the author of the article; the title: what’s the title of the article).

►Make a summary of the article (8-10 sentences).

►Write a conclusion.

How to write a summary

When you summarize the article you look at a whole text and reduce it to a few sentences using your own phrases, not the reporter's.

The first sentence of the summary should express the overall message of the text (общую идею). The remaining sentences should present the most important ideas in the text. A good summary need not include details or supporting evidences (подкрепляющие факты) for the main ideas.

Phrases - clichés

The primary task of the published article is ...

The main aim of the article is ...

The article under review aims at ... (e.g. striking up a debate on environmental protection in Africa).

In the modern world the problem of/ the issue of'....' gains special significance / great importance.

Cliché to form the 2d sentence:

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highlights (освещает) points out (указывает)

stresses / emphasizes (подчеркивает) reveals / discloses (статья раскрывает) reviews (дает обзор)

summarizes (подводит итог, суммирует).

Each paragraph contains the main idea. That’s why it’s important to give 2-4

sentences on each paragraph.

The article starts with ...

The article under consideration points out...

Great attention in the article is paid to ...

Much effort is undertaken to analyse ...

A special concern of the reporter is ...

The article goes on to say ...

The paper argues (говорит) / maintains / claims ...

The reporter finds a good deal to say in support of/ against...

The paper finds it significant that...

The reporter is confident that...

The article agrees / strong believes / expresses approval of (выражает одобрение)

/ insists on .. ing / bitterly affects (выступает с яростными нападками на ...) /

condemns (клеймит, осуждает) ...

The paper is sharply critical of...

The article (the reporter) expresses concern (выражает обеспокоенность) / alarm

(тревогу) at not accepting ...

The paper puts / places the responsibility for smth. on smb.

Conclusion

In conclusion the article reads ...

In conclusion the reporter makes inference that as a result...

The reporter tries to persuade the reader that...

That's about all I wanted to say,

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