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Приложение А

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Personalities

DEWEY, John (1859-1952). One of the most notable American philosophers of the 20th century, John Dewey was also a pioneer in educational theory and method. Out of his ideas developed the progressive education movement that was very influential in schools until about 1950. In philosophy he shares with William James and Charles Sanders Peirce the distinction of founding the movement called pragmatism. (See also Education.)

Dewey was born in Burlington, Vt., on Oct. 20, 1859. He attended the University of Vermont and Johns Hopkins University. In 1884 he went to the University of Michigan as an instructor in philosophy and psychology. From 1894 to 1904 he headed a department of philosophy, psychology, and education at the University of Chicago. In 1904 Dewey moved to Columbia University in New York City as professor of philosophy. He remained there for the rest of his teaching career.

Dewey and his wife, the former Alice Chipman, started the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago to test his educational theories. Learning by doing was the heart of his method. The children were given freedom to learn in accordance with their needs and experiences. The faculty was able to study child behavior, a new area of study at the time.

Dewey regarded the school as a community - a part of society. He looked upon education as a process of living, not as preparation for later living. His ideas were incorporated in a number of books, including the influential 'The School and Society', published in 1899, and 'Experience and Education' (1938). In philosophy, Dewey's pragmatic theories insisted that the way to test ideas was to check them against their consequences rather than to claim their agreement with supposedly self - evident truth. His philosophy was suited to American life, characterized by its respect for science and technology, its diversity, and its practicality. When faced with a problem, said Dewey, a person must logically examine the options open to him to find the best solution supported by the facts. This method of inquiry and testing should be applied to moral and social questions, as well as to technological and scientific ones. His theories were set forth in a number of books, including 'Reconstruction in Philosophy' (1920), 'Experience and Nature'

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(1925), 'Art as Experience' (1934), and 'Freedom and Culture' (1939). Dewey retired from teaching in 1930. He died in New York City on June 1, 1952.

ELIOT, Charles W. (1834-1926). When Charles W. Eliot became the president of Harvard University in 1869, higher education emphasized principally mathematics and the classics. Eliot, eager to give every student an opportunity to discover his individual abilities, broke down this traditional system. He brought new subjects into the curriculum, introduced the elective system, abolished compulsory religious worship, made it possible to complete the work for a bachelor's degree in three years, and built up a first-rate graduate school. His writings, speeches, and correspondence were influential in bringing about reforms in the elementary and secondary schools.

Charles William Eliot was born in Boston on March 20, 1834, a member of an old New England family. He attended the Boston Latin School and entered Harvard when he was 15. After graduation in 1853 he taught at Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He spent several years abroad studying European educational methods before he became president of Harvard, an office that he held from 1869 until 1909. Eliot wrote and spoke extensively on educational, political, economic, and religious questions. He gained wide fame for his "five - foot shelf" of books, better known as the 'Harvard Classics'. After he suggested that "all the books needed for a real education could be set on a shelf five feet long," a publisher asked him to select such a list. He died in Northeast Harbor, Me., on Aug. 22, 1926. Eliot was married twice. His first wife, Ellen Peabody Eliot, died in 1869, leaving two young sons. His second wife was Grace Hopkinson Eliot.

Eliot's principal books are: 'Five American Contributions to Civilization, and Other Essays', published in 1898; 'More Money for the Public Schools' (1903); 'John Gilley' (1904); 'Four American Leaders' (1906); and 'The Durable Satisfactions of Life' (1910).

HOLMES, Oliver Wendell (1809-94). One of the most famous American writers of his day, Oliver Wendell Holmes was also a surgeon, teacher, and lecturer. Although he wrote several novels, two biographies, and a number of familiar poems, he is probably best known for a series of essays that first appeared in Atlantic Monthly. These were subsequently published in a series of volumes collectively referred to as the "BreakfastTable" books.

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Holmes was born on Aug. 29, 1809, in Cambridge, Mass., where his father was a clergyman. The elder Holmes was also a Harvard professor and a historian. Holmes received his early education in Cambridge and at Phillips Academy in Andover. He attended Harvard College, graduating in 1829. His fame as a writer began in 1830 with his poem 'Old Ironsides'. The popular sentiment aroused by this poem saved the frigate Constitution from destruction.

After he graduated from Harvard Holmes studied law, then medicine, in Boston and in Europe. He received an M.D. degree at Harvard in 1836. That same year he also published his 'Poems', which contained the amusing poem 'My Aunt' and the humorouspathetic 'Last Leaf'. Holmes's verses became so popular that he has been called the poet laureate of Boston.

Holmes won a Boylston prize for a medical essay in 1836 and two more in 1837. He was appointed professor of anatomy at Dartmouth College in 1838. In 1840 Holmes married Amelia Lee Jackson. They had three children, one of whom became a famous justice of the Supreme Court.

Until 1857 Holmes concentrated on teaching and on writing medical articles. 'The Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever', which appeared in 1843, is probably the most noteworthy of these. In 1847 he was appointed anatomy professor at Harvard. From then until 1853 he also served as dean of the Harvard medical school.

In 1857 Holmes's career as a popular writer got fully under way. That year James Russell Lowell brought out the first issue of the Atlantic Monthly and chose Holmes to be the prose writer for publication. Here began the series of essays that later appeared in book form as 'The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table', published in 1858; 'The Professor of the Breakfast-Table' (1860); and 'The Poet at the Breakfast-Table' (1872). The last of this series, called 'Over the Teacups', appeared in 1891.

As a writer and lecturer Holmes was greatly loved for his wit, wisdom, and charm. In spite of his remarkable and wide-ranging talents, he was never guilty of talking down to his audiences. Holmes died on Oct. 7, 1894, in his home in Boston.

HORNEY, Karen (1885-1952). The German-born psychoanalyst Karen Horney stressed social and environmental factors as determining individual personality traits and

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causing neuroses and personality disorders. In this she departed from the approach of Sigmund Freud, objecting to his concepts of libido, death instinct, and penis envy.

Horney was born Karen Danielsen in Hamburg, Germany, on Sept. 16, 1885. She received her medical degree from the University of Berlin in 1912 and trained in psychoanalysis with an associate of Freud named Karl Abraham. From 1915 to 1920 she did outpatient and clinical work at Berlin hospitals, and for the next 12 years she held a private practice and taught at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute.

After coming to the United States in 1932 she became associate director of the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis. She moved to New York City in 1934 to teach at the New School for Social Research and returned to private practice. She died in New York City on Dec. 4, 1952.

In her early books, 'The Neurotic Personality of Our Time' (1937) and 'New Ways in Psychoanalysis' (1939), Horney argued that Freud's idea of penis envy treated female psychology as an offshoot of male psychology. She also believed that the infant's basic anxiety regarding isolation and helplessness was a main cause of later neurosis. The ways in which a child copes with anxiety eventually can give rise to persistent and irrational needs. Two of her later books were 'Our Inner Conflicts' (1945) and 'Neurosis and Human Growth' (1950).

KAISER, Henry J. (1882-1967). One of the first small economy cars produced in the United States was the Henry J. It was named for one of the most prominent industrialists of the time, Henry J. Kaiser. Among the more than 100 companies he founded were Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corporation, Kaiser Steel, and Kaiser Cement and Gypsum. One of the largest private health-care plans in the country, Kaiser - Permanente, also bears his name.

Henry John Kaiser was born in Sprout Brook, N.Y., on May 9, 1882. He left school at age 13 to go to work. When the client of a company he was working for in British Columbia went out of business, Kaiser got a loan and took over the client's company. This was the start of his industrial empire. His company helped build some of the largest dams in the West. During World War II he ran seven shipyards that made 1,490 ships. After the war he expanded into aluminum and car manufacturing. He ended the auto business in

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1953. The health - care plan instituted by Kaiser for his shipyard employees in 1942 was the first health maintenance organization (HMO) in the country and was used as a model for later federal programs. Kaiser died in Honolulu, Hawaii, on Aug. 24, 1967.

MANN, Horace (1796-1859). The "father of the American public school," Horace Mann worked to win reforms and public support for the schools in the United States. He pioneered the concept that education should be universal, nonsectarian, and free.

Horace Mann was born on May 4, 1796, on a farm in Franklin, Mass. His father died when he was 13. Horace had little time for school, but he read widely. He entered Brown University and in 1819 graduated at the head of his class. He studied law at Litchfield, Conn., was admitted to the bar in 1823, and practiced for 14 years.

From 1827 to 1837 Mann was in the Massachusetts state legislature, the last two years as president of the Senate. He was active in educational reform movements and introduced the act creating the Massachusetts State Board of Education. He himself served as the first secretary of the board. Through his influence the first normal, or teachertraining, school in the United States was established in 1839.

In 1843 Mann spent five months in Europe studying its schools. On his return his report to the board antagonized the Boston schoolmasters, who considered his praise of Prussian teaching methods as criticism of themselves. The report, however, made him a national figure. Mann was also attacked for barring sectarian religious publications from the schools.

His 12 annual reports and his periodical, Common School Journal, did much to raise educational standards. Declaring his enthusiasm for education as the basis of democracy, Mann said, "The common school is the greatest discovery ever made by man".

In 1848 Mann was elected to the United States House of Representatives to fill the seat vacated by the death of John Quincy Adams. An ardent champion of free speech, labor, and women's rights, he was equally ardent in his opposition to slavery. He broke with Daniel Webster over the slavery question. The Webster faction prevented his renomination in 1850 as a Whig candidate, but Mann was reelected as a Free-Soiler. Mann was the Free Soil party's candidate for governor of Massachusetts in 1852, but he was defeated.

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Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio, made Mann its president in 1853. There he sought to make higher education available to all on a coeducational and nonsectarian basis. He died in Yellow Springs on Aug. 2, 1859.

McCLINTOCK, Barbara (1902-92). In the 1940s and 1950s American geneticist Barbara McClintock discovered that chromosomes can break off from neighboring chromosomes and recombine to create unique genetic combinations in a process known as crossing over, a radical break from accepted genetic doctrine of the time. The importance of her research, performed on corn (maize), was not recognized for many years. Only after geneticists found other movable genetic elements, such as transposons, in both plants and animals was McClintock acknowledged for her role in explaining complicated patterns of inheritance. She was awarded the 1983 Nobel prize for physiology or medicine, the first woman ever to win an unshared prize in that category.

Barbara McClintock was born on June 16, 1902, in Hartford, Conn., and was reared in New York City. She earned her doctorate in botany at Cornell University in 1927, and remained there until 1941 to do research work with the "Cornell corn group" of R.A. Emerson, George Beadle, Marcus Rhoades, and Charles Burnham. At the end of 1941 she began her long association with the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in Long Island, N.Y., where she worked in almost total isolation for 50 years.

Despite her maverick reputation she garnered many honors, including the National Medal of Science in 1970, and she became president of the Genetics Society in 1945. At the time of her death on Sept. 2, 1992, in Huntington, N.Y., many of her colleagues agreed that she was "one of the three Ms": Gregor Mendel, Thomas Hunt Morgan, and Barbara McClintock - the most important figures in the history of genetics. (See also Genetics; Heredity.)

RUSSELL, Bertrand (1872-1970). During his almost 98 years Bertrand Russell was a scholar in almost every field: philosophy, logic, mathematics, science, sociology, education, history, religion, and politics. He was a pacifist, an advocate of social justice, and a proponent of nuclear disarmament. Yet it was for literature that he won the Nobel prize in 1950. He was the author of several dozen books, many of them written for a general audience.

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Bertrand Arthur William Russell was born on May 18, 1872, at Trelleck in Monmouthshire, England. He was the second son of Viscount Amberley, a title to which he succeeded in 1931 after his brother Frank's death. His parents died when he was quite young, so he was brought up by his paternal grandmother. He was educated privately in his early years before entering Trinity College, Cambridge. He took mathematics honors in 1893 and graduated in 1894. For two years Russell lectured in the United States before returning home to a lectureship at the London School of Economics.

One of his goals was to prove that mathematics could be derived from self-evident principles. His first attempt to do so was in 'The Principles of Mathematics', published in 1903. Ten years later the task was advanced with 'Principia Mathematica' (1910-13), written with Alfred North Whitehead. Russell received a teaching appointment at Trinity College in 1910 but lost it in 1916 because of his pacifism. He was also jailed for six months in 1918. While in prison he wrote 'Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy' (1919). Russell visited the Soviet Union in 1920 and afterward wrote a highly critical book, 'The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism' (1920). During the next 12 years he published a number of other popular books, including 'What I Believe' (1925), 'Why I Am Not a Christian' (1927), and 'Marriage and Morals' (1929). His philosophical speculations on the nature of knowledge were published as 'Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits' (1948).

After World War II Russell turned his attention to international politics. He encouraged civil disobedience and sit - ins to protest nuclear weapons. In the 1960s he protested American involvement in Vietnam. The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation was established by him in 1963. The last three years of his life were devoted to writing his autobiography. He died in Merioneth, Wales, on Feb. 2, 1970.

SALK, Jonas (1914-1995). For the first half of the 20th century, poliomyelitis, also known as infantile paralysis, was one of the most dreaded diseases to attack young people. By 1955 American physician and researcher Jonas Salk had developed a vaccine that almost eradicated the disease in the United States and other developed countries. (See also

Vaccines.)

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Jonas Edward Salk was born in New York City on Oct. 28, 1914. He graduated from the City College of New York in 1934 and earned his doctorate in medicine from New York University's College of Medicine in 1939. While in medical school he had worked with Thomas Francis, Jr., on killed-virus immunology studies. In 1942 he joined a group at the University of Michigan working on a vaccine against influenza. The vaccine was perfected in 1953.

In 1947 Salk became associate professor of bacteriology and head of the Virus Research Laboratory at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. There he began working on the polio vaccine. Three viruses caused polio, and a vaccine had to be effective against all of them. By 1952 Salk had developed such a vaccine and conducted field tests on children. His findings were published in 1953, and a mass field test was done the next year.

On April 12, 1955, the vaccine was released for use in the United States. In 1957 Salk was named professor of experimental medicine at Pittsburgh, and in 1963 he went to San Diego as head of the Institute (later named the Salk Institute) for Biological Studies. In 1977 Salk was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He died on June 23, 1995, in La Jolla, Calif.

SENDAK, Maurice (born 1928). "Children . . . live in both fantasy and reality; they move back and forth with ease, in a way that we no longer remember how to do." Maurice Sendak, an artist best known for his illustrated children's books, had this to say about children, who were both his subject and a large part of his readership. His understanding of the role that fantasy plays in childhood is a central reason for the wide success of his works.

Maurice Bernard Sendak was born on June 10, 1928, in Brooklyn, N.Y. He developed an early disdain for formal education but studied briefly at the Art Students League. His first jobs included drawing backgrounds for comic strips and creating window displays for toy stores. In 1951 he illustrated 'The Wonderful Farm' by Marcel Ayme and a year later Ruth Krauss's 'A Hole Is to Dig'. Both were well received, and he went on to illustrate more than 80 children's books.

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In 1956 Sendak wrote his first book, 'Kenny's Window', which he also illustrated. In 1963 he wrote 'Where the Wild Things Are', which won the Caldecott Medal. Other books include 'Hector Protector' (1965), 'Seven Little Monsters' (1977), 'Outside Over There' (1981), and 'We Are All in the Dumps with Jack and Guy' (1993). In 1975 he wrote and directed 'Really Rosie' for television and several years later adapted it for a musical. The songs were composed by the singer-songwriter Carole King, and the skits and songs were taken from the four stories of the 'Nutshell Library', published in 1962. Sendak also designed the sets for other productions, including a 1980 performance of Mozart's opera 'The Magic Flute' in Houston, Tex., and a 1983 version of Tchaikovsky's ballet 'The Nutcracker Suite' in Seattle, Wash.

WEBSTER, Noah (1758-1843). Few individuals have had as great an influence on the pronunciation and spelling of American English as Noah Webster, a man whose name became synonymous with the word dictionary. (See also Reference Books.)

Noah Webster was born in Hartford, Conn., on Oct. 16, 1758, and educated at Yale College. His studies were briefly interrupted by the Revolutionary War, but he was graduated in 1778. While teaching in Goshen, N.Y., in 1782-83, he became aware of the need for better textbooks. In 1783 he published his 'Grammatical Institute of the English Language', which included 'The American Spelling Book'. The spelling book has never been out of print. In the next 20 years he practiced law in Hartford, edited a newspaper in New York City, and served as a judge and a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives.

In 1807 he began his 'American Dictionary of the English Language'. He spent ten years in the study of English and its connections with other languages. Seven more years were spent in preparation of the dictionary, including a visit to Europe to consult books and scholars in Paris and Cambridge.

The fact that Webster included 12,000 words and between 30,000 and 40,000 definitions that had not appeared in any earlier dictionary indicates how thoroughly he did his task. The work was finished in 1825 and published in 1828 in two volumes. Since that time it has been a standard dictionary of the English language.

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In compiling his dictionary Webster had in mind the special needs of his own countrymen. He followed the best American usage of his time, sometimes departing slightly from British forms and choosing the simpler of two spellings whenever he felt warranted in doing so. He spelled wagon, for instance, instead of waggon; develop rather than develope; theater, miter, and center in place of theatre, mitre, and centre; color, labor, and honor instead of colour, labour, and honour (see American Literature).

Webster lived for a time in Amherst, Mass., and was one of the founders of Amherst College. He also served in the Massachusetts legislature. He returned to New Haven in 1822 and died there on May 28, 1843.

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