38. Comparative construction.

39. Substantivized adjectives.

The adjective is sometimes substantivized, it is used in this case to denote a group of objects or an object possessing the quality. The adjectives may be substantivized fully or partially.

Partially substantivized adjectives often denote the following:

• a class of persons possessing the same quality

the old, the young, the rich, the poor, the aged, the unemployed, the wounded, the sick, etc.;

• nationalities

the English, the French, the Dutch;

• abstract notions

the beautiful, the plural, the impossible, the inevitable, etc.

What are the gaieties of the rich, the splendour of the powerful, what is the pride of the great? (Hx.)

They co-occur in the text with the definite article.

Wholly substantivized adjectives may denote:

• persons

a relative, a conservative, a native, a savage, a criminal, a European, a liberal, a progressive, etc.

• nationalities

a Russian, a German, an Italian, an American, etc.

• objects with a collective meaning (used only in the plural)

goods, valuables, sweets, eatables, etc.

They are used in the plural and the genitive case forms and co-occur with articles like nouns.

And now they were in the midst of the Market's clamour. Greeks, Italians, French, Negroes, Indians. (Frb.)

40. Irregular forms of the degrees of comparison of adjectives.

Positive degree	Comparative degree	Superlative degree	Difference in meaning
1	2	3	4
good	better	best
well (relating to health)
bad (ill)	worse	worst
old	older	oldest
	elder	eldest	Used with reference to membership of a human family or social group
late	later	latest	Used with reference to time
	latter	last	Used with reference to the order of events
near	nearer	nearest	Used with reference to distance
		next	Used with reference to order
far	farther	farthest	Both used with reference to distance, though in this sense "farther", "farthest" are preferred. "Further" is preferred in the sense of "another", it shows that something will follow
	furthest	further

41. Adjectives after verbs.

47. Word order – adverbs with a verb.

48. Semantic groups of pronouns.

Pronouns, unlike nouns or adjectives, do not denote substances or qualities, but they refer to the substances or qualities expressed by nouns and adjectives in the same context or situation.

Peter went to Mary’s place yesterday.

He went to her place yesterday as he wanted to tell her the news.

According to their meaning pronouns are generally subdivided into:

• Personal

I, you, he, she, it, we, they.

• Possessive

My (mine), your (yours), her, his, its, our, your, their.

• Demonstrative

This, that, these, those.

• Indefinite

Each, either, both, some, any, every, one, everyone, everybody, everything, anyone, anybody, anything, all, many, much, few, little, other, another.

• Negative

Neither, nobody, nothing, none, no one.

• Reflexive

Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

• Interrogative

Who, what, whose, which, whom, whoever, whichever, whatever.

• Reciprocal

Each other, one another.

• Connective (are used to connect the subordinate clause to the principal clause)

Who, whom, which, whose, that.