Index

acquis communautaire:

CEE countries, 49, 70–1

growth of consumer law, 72–5 implementation, 72–8

model legislation role, 83 EC view of consumers, 120–3 growth of consumer law, 1–3 source of legal principle, 157

advertising:

British Code, and copycat packaging, 195–6, 203

broadcasting, 3–4

CEE countries, 77–8, 86 comparative advertising, 3 ECJ jurisprudence, 39 national laws, 172–3

EU regulation, 3–4 exaggerated statements, 116 harmonisation of laws, 55, 181 misleading advertising, 3

CEE countries, 70, 73–4 cross-border selling, 236–8, 241–4 Directive, 54, 78

ECJ jurisprudence, 37–9, 113 national standards, 12–13 protection of competitors’ interests,

41

sweepstakes, 236–8, 241–4 types, 42–3

pharmaceutical products, 44 Sales Promotions Regulation, 104 Sweden, 12, 164

taste and decency, 9 tobacco, 3, 44, 92–3, 119

Agenda 2000, 71

aggressive practices, effects, 107 appellations of origin, 43

artistic national treasures, 162 ASDA, 192, 202

Ashurst Study, 249, 251

Australia, copycat packaging, 197, 199, 213–14

Austria, 167, 169, 198n15, 240, 245, 247, 248

average consumers:

acquis communautaire, 120–3 Article 5, 24–7, 115–16 asymmetric power, 122

benchmark of unfair practices, 6, 24–7, 105–6

constitutional validity, 117–20 credulity, 136

ECJ free movement jurisprudence, 109, 123–33

meaning, 39, 108–9, 115–38 infiltration, 150–1

reasonably circumspect consumers, 127–8, 132

social and cultural context, 26–7 UCPD, 133–7

UK implementation, 223, 228 vulnerable groups, 116, 123, 134–7

Beier, FK, 182 Belgium:

itinerant sales, 164

OFT v Duchesne, 241–4

Trade Practices Act, 169

unfair competition law, 166, 198n15 v competition law, 173

black list of unfair practices: consistently unfair practices, 6 copycat packaging, 193–4

282 Index

defects, 84, 106–7 detail, 21, 85

omissions, 21, 160, 170–1 text (Annex 1), 275–8 UCPD structure, 36

UK implementation, 224 brands, copycat problem, 192 British Brands Group, 191n1

British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 85–6, 87

broadcasting, tobacco advertising, 3–4 Bulgaria:

American technical assistance, 63 Commission for Protection of

Competition, 66, 77, 80 communism, 60 competition law

as consumer protection, 67 case law, 66

v consumer enforcement, 80 pre-EU membership, 62

Consumer Protection Act, 72, 73 enforcement mechanisms, 66 UCPD transposition, 86

burden of proof, 40

Cambier, V, 78

Cassis de Dijon, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 162

causation, 106 CEE countries:

Association and Europe Agreements, 69 EU membership impact, 68–81

accession process, 69–72 advertising, 77–8, 86 coherence, 81–3 competition law, 75–7 consumer protection, 72–5

unfair commercial practices, 78–81 historical legacies, 48, 59–61 post-communist judiciary, 65

pre-EU unfair commercial practices American technical assistance, 63 competition law as consumer pro-

tection, 67

enforcement techniques, 64–7 legal legacies, 59–61

legal mechanisms, 59–68 market regulation, 61–7

UCPD and coherence, 88–90 enforcement, 87–8

implementation, 86–7 prospective effects, 9–10, 83–8 taste and decency, 87

children:

Swedish advertising, 12 vulnerability, 134–5

choice of law, 18, 19, 97, 99 clearance sales, 171

codes of conduct:

copycat packaging, 195–6, 203 limitations, 28–30

UCPD and, 105 coercion, 107 comitology, 246, 248 commercial agents, 240

commercial communications: 1996 Green Paper, 181 meaning, 161

commercial practices: antitrust law and, 161

ECJ free movement case law, 162–5 meaning, 35, 160–1, 165–6

scope, 166, 170

commercial property, 162, 163 competition law

see also unfair competition CEE countries

competition agencies, 80 competition as consumer protec-

tion, 67 legacies, 59, 60

strengthening, 75–7

unfair competition and antitrust, 62–4

commercial practices and, 161 consumer protection and, 171–4 Courage doctrine, 250–1

ECJ pro-competition approach, 39, 40

harmonisation of laws, 170 ill-gotten gains, 249, 250–1 intellectual property and, 183

UCPD and, 17

unfair competition law and, 17, 62–4, 170, 171–4

confusing marketing, 17 consumer contracts

see also unfair terms in consumer contracts

English law, 155, 156 consumer credit, 142–3 consumer guarantees, 143 Consumer Ombudsmen, 166, 167 consumer organisations:

accountability, 58 CEE countries, 64

French-German sweepstakes, 237–8 Nordic countries, 166

privatisation of enforcement, 236, 238–44, 245

qualified entities, 239, 241 regulation v consumer empowerment,

57–8

unfair contract terms and, 141 consumer protection:

2001 Green Paper, 4, 11, 35, 49–50, 88, 104, 143, 181

antitrust law and, 171–4 CEE countries

accession process, 72–5 competition law as consumer pro-

tection, 67 Consumer Codes, 73

government agencies, 74–5 contract law and, 141–8 cross-border see cross-border con-

sumer protection Directorate, 53, 54

EC view of customers, 117–20 enforcement, 7, 30–1, 59

CEE countries, 64–7 EU regulation, 94–6

competence, 4, 91–4 fragmentation, 49–59

free movement principle and, 162 Green Book, 245

harmonisation see harmonisation of laws

national diversities, 12–13

Index 283

Nordic countries, 166, 198n15 UCPD focus, 15, 33–5, 85–6, 88, 89,

160, 165–6, 175–7

unfair competition and, 181–4, 189 United Kingdom, 183–4, 198–9

Consumer Protection Cooperation Regulation, 6, 31, 58, 236, 244–8

consumers

see also average consumers consumer autonomy, 172 meaning, 150

contract law

see also unfair terms in consumer contracts

consumer protection and, 141–8 harmonisation, 1–3, 122, 143, 144 meaning, 146–8

UCPD effect, 9, 16, 44, 113, 139–58 basis for wider changes, 148–9 English law, 154–7

infiltration of porous norms, 149– 54

possible influences, 148–54 UK consumer contracts, 155, 156 validity, 146

cooperation, 6, 31, 58, 236, 244–8 copycat packaging:

Actimel-B’A case, 211

Australian remedies, 197, 199, 213–14

Betadine-Betapovidona case, 210 brands, importance, 192

Dutch remedies, 204–5 French remedies, 210–11 German remedies, 206–8

Hasbro-Simba Toys case, 205

Home Beautiful-25 Beautiful Homes case, 213–14

impact on consumers, 192–3 Italian remedies, 211–13

LEGO-Mega Blocks case, 204–5 Oraldine-Oralkin case, 209 Pedigree-Oscar Hunde Menue case,

207–8

Penguin-Puffin case, 192, 200, 202–3 point-of-sale practices, 193

problem, 192

Red Bull-Live Wire case, 214

284 Index

Sindramed-Capitano case, 212 Spanish remedies, 208–10

UCPD and, 17, 42, 191, 193–4, 197– 200

public and private enforcement, 197–200

UK remedies, 194–7, 200–4 actions by brand owners, 196–7 copyright, 201–2

design rights, 201

IGD dispute resolution, 203–4 passing-off, 196–7, 202 public enforcement, 194–5 registered designs, 201 self-regulation, 195–6, 203 trade marks, 200

unfair competition

v consumer protection, 184–8 remedies, 196–7

copyright, 201–2 cosmetics, labelling, 17 counterfeiting, 195

country of origin principle, 35, 45–6, 96, 98, 110

coupons, 171

Courage doctrine, 250–1 cross-border consumer protection:

cooperation, 6, 31, 58, 236, 244–8 French-German distance selling,

236–8 future, 248–53

Injunctions Directive, 238–44 languages, 253 nationalisation, 236, 244–8

OFT v Duchesne, 19, 241–4, 248–9 privatisation, 236, 238–44, 245 qualified entities, 239, 241 skimming off, 251–2

statutory agencies, 31, 236 cultural context:

average consumers, 26–7

OFT v Duchesne, 243 taste and decency, 135

Cyprus, 168–9

Czech Republic, 62, 64, 69, 73, 74, 86, 169

Czechoslovakia, 63, 67

damages:

breach of UCPD, 149, 152–3 misrepresentation, 147

delict:

France, 152, 154, 169 Netherlands, 169

denigration, 17, 43 Denmark, 37, 53, 169 design rights, 201

directives, implementation, 216–18 see also implementation of UCPD

discounts, 171 discrimination, 27 disgorgement procedures, 235

distance selling, 55, 142–3, 236–8, 241–4 dol, 146, 152

door-step selling, 12, 26, 55, 121, 122, 131–2

due diligence defence, 228, 229, 230

e-commerce, Directive, 55 economic interests:

ECJ protection, 131–2

UCPD scope, 36, 84, 109, 194, 221 employment contracts, English law, 155 enforcement see cross-border consumer

protection; UCPD remedies enlargement see EU enlargement environment, 53, 98, 172 Estonia, 62, 69, 76, 86, 88, 169 EU enlargement:

1995 White Paper, 70, 74 Agenda 2000, 71 Community wide effect, 49

effect on CEE countries, 68–81 accession process, 69–72 advertising, 77–8 coherence, 81–3 competition law, 75–7 consumer protection, 72–5

unfair commercial practices, 78–81 justification for UCPD, 49–50 power asymmetry, 49

fair trade principles, 172 false statements, UK law, 227

financial services, 44, 111, 112 Finland, 169

food labelling, 232 France:

consumer protection, 34 contract, 146, 147, 152, 153 copycat packaging, 210–11 delictual liability, 152, 154 distance selling, 236–8 ill-gotten gains, 249–50 legal model, 64, 239

unfair competition law, 169, 182, 198n15, 210–11

free movement principle: broadcasting services, 3–4

Cassis de Dijon, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 162

consumer protection and, 162

ECJ case law on commercial practices, 108, 162–5

ECJ view of consumers, 123–33 exceptions, 125, 162

rule of reason, 162 UCPD legal basis, 119

uneven domestic standards, 13 frustration, 155

general prohibition (Article 5): autonomy, 27

average consumers see average consumers

conditions, 21–2 generally, 20, 21–8

material distortion of behaviour, 22–4, 155

misleading and aggressive practices, 28

new regulatory technique, 103, 139 professional diligence, 21, 22, 108,

154 text, 265

geographical denominations, 43 Germany:

collectivist world-view, 177 copycat packaging, 187, 206–8

cross-border enforcement, 245, 247, 248

Index 285

distance selling, 236–8

legal model for CEE countries, 64 pharmaceutical products online, 165 trade marks, 206

unfair competition

1909 UWG legacy, 176, 177, 178– 9, 182

and antitrust law, 174 comparison with UK, 177–80 concept, 33–4, 40, 198n15 consumer protection and, 184 legislative history, 166–8

model, 52, 57, 62, 64, 167, 184, 249–50

Unfair Competition Act, 37, 46, 52–3, 169

good faith:

English law, 154, 155–6 French law, 153–4

UCPD requirement, 154–7 Goyens, Monique, 129 Greece, 167, 169

Green Book on Consumer Protection, 245

harassment, 221–2 harmonisation of laws:

advertising, 55, 181 competence, 1, 92–3 competition, 170 consumer law, 1–3, 180

competence, 92, 119 general character, 94–6

minimum harmonisation, 219 patchwork, 94–5, 120

scope, 117–20

contract law, 1–3, 122, 143, 144

full harmonisation see maximum harmonisation

minimum harmonisation, 13–14, 219 pre-UCPD fragmentation, 51–9

consumer empowerment v regulation, 56–9

piecemeal harmonisation, 54–5 search for unifying concept, 55–6 unfair competition to consumer

protection, 52–4

286 Index

unfair competition, 180, 181 health and safety, 16, 44, 113 Hungary:

American technical assistance, 63 competition law

as consumer protection, 67 case law, 66

Competition Act, 77 pre-EU accession, 62, 63

consumer fraud, 76

Office for Economic Competition, 65, 77, 80

UCPD transposition, 87

unfair competition law, 60, 62, 64, 169

ICPEN, 245, 253

ill-gotten gains, 235, 248–52 immovable property, 44, 113 impact assessment, 13 implementation of directives

see also implementation of UCPD generally, 216–18

indirect effect doctrine, 228 Injunctions Directive, 240 minimum harmonisation, 219

implementation of UCPD: affected legislation, 220–2 CEE countries, 86 challenges, 168–9, 219–20 deadline, 5, 160

maximum harmonisation see maximum harmonisation

post-implementation issues, 99–101, 231–2

transition periods, 44, 84, 113 United Kingdom, 222–31

average consumers, 223, 228 DTI steps, 231–2

individual consumer actions, 230–1 remedies, 229–31

strict liability, 229 terminology, 223, 224

Trade Descriptions Act and, 225–8 transactional decisions, 223–4,

228, 229

indirect effect doctrine, 228

industrial property, 162, 163 injunctions:

collective interests, 142–3 copycat packaging, 202

cross-border injunctions, 19, 238–44 OFT v Duchesne, 19, 241–4, 248–9

Directive, 58, 236, 238–44 mutual recognition, 58 UCPD remedies, 235

insurance, 153–4, 155 intellectual property:

anti-competitive function, 183 copycat packaging and, 196, 200–3,

205 Internal Market

see also harmonisation of laws Article 4 of UCPD, 18–20, 94

critique, 110–12 original clause, 110 text, 264

deregulatory approach, 123–4 diversity and, 118–19

exceptions, 15, 113, 125, 131, 135, 162

Green Paper, 56

mutual recognition, 18, 19, 35–6 sales promotions, 161, 171 Services Directive, 96–9

UCPD objective, 13, 91 Internet:

spam, 107, 109

unfair practices, 15, 21 interpretation of UCPD, 99–101, 231–2 Ireland, 53, 113, 168–9, 183

Italy, 169, 182, 211, 211–13

jewellery parties, 132

judiciary, transition countries, 65 jurisdiction rules, 113

labelling, 17, 232 languages, 253

Latvia, 62, 67, 72, 76, 80, 86, 169 Letowska, E, 67

lex specialis derogat lex generalis, 17, 44–5, 95

liberalisation of markets, 37

Lithuania, 62, 72, 74, 77, 80, 86, 87, 169

look-alikes see copycat packaging Luxembourg, 12

McLoughlin, Patrick, MP, 200 Malta, 169

market liberalisation, 37

material distortion of behaviour, 22–4, 155

Max Planck Institute, 34, 35, 52, 53, 181 maximum harmonisation:

Commission procedure, 111 country of origin principle or, 96–7 UCPD, 7–8, 14–15

choice of law and, 19, 97

v domestic prohibitions, 113 effect on national laws, 43–5 feasibility, 45–6

implementation challenges, 219– 20

issues, 103

policy debates, 108–9 practice, 113–14 radical departure, 140

mens rea, false statements, 227–8 mergers, 170

Micklitz Report, 176n3, 179, 180–4, 189 misrepresentation, damages, 147 modem hijacking, 21

mutual recognition principle: injunctions, 58

Internal Market, 18, 19, 35–6 standing to sue, 239–40

national treasures, 162 nationality discrimination, 27

see also free movement principle Netherlands, 169, 204–5, 217 new rules and techniques, 5–10

OECD, 245

OFT v Duchesne, 19, 241–4, 248–9 ombudsmen, 166, 167

Index 287

package travel, 2 packaging

see also copycat packaging importance, 195–6

Paris Convention, 52, 167, 169, 182 passing-off:

copycat packaging, 42, 196–7, 202, 214

unfair competition and, 191 United Kingdom, 8, 187, 191

PHARE, 71, 72

pharmaceutical products, 44, 165 Poland:

American technical assistance, 63 competition law, 60, 62, 66 Competition Office, 74, 80 Consumer Protection Act, 73 enforcement techniques, 64 UCPD transposition, 86, 87 unfair competition, 62, 169

Portugal, 169 precious metals, 112

predatory pricing, 171, 180 premium offers, 171

private international law, 98–9 prize competitions, 171 product liability, 2, 118

professional diligence, 21, 22, 108, 154 professional regulation, 44 proportionality, 24, 84

public health exceptions, 98, 125, 131, 162, 165

public morality exceptions, 162 public policy exceptions, 98, 125, 162 public security exceptions, 98, 125

quasi-timeshares, 14

registered designs, 201 Roman law, 152 Romania, 62, 66, 67

sales promotions:

automatically unfair practices, 160 definition, 171

288 Index

post-UCPD national laws, 170–1 Sales Promotion Regulation, 61, 104,

171

Schulte-Nolke, Hans, 198–9n15 Schulze, Reiner, 198–9n15 scope of UCPD:

Article 3, text, 263–4 business-to-business

exclusion, 33, 41–3, 111–12 indirect protection, 176, 194

business-to-consumers, 15, 33–5, 85, 88, 89, 160, 165–6, 175–7

commercial practices, meaning, 35, 166, 170

competition, 17

competitors’ interests, 41–3, 176 confusion, 93–4

contract law, 9, 16, 44, 113, 139–58 copycat packaging, 17, 42, 191, 193–

4, 197–200

economic interests, 36, 84, 109, 194, 221

effect on national provisions, 43–5 excluded fields, 112–13, 221 financial services, 44, 111, 112 Framework Directive, 93, 104, 143,

219

generally, 15–18, 33–46 health and safety, 16, 44, 113 immovable property, 44, 113 implementation and, 220 jurisdiction rules, 113

level of protection, 37–41 professional derogations, 44 relations with other directives, 34–5

sector specific directives, 8, 17, 44–5, 85, 95

Services Directive, 96–9 revolution, 47–8, 140

taste and decency, 9, 15, 113, 135 unfair competition, 17, 62–4, 170,

171–4, 176 unfairness concept, 108

self-regulation:

copycat packaging, 195–6, 203 role and limitations, 28–30 UK reliance on, 198

Services Directive, 96–9 skimming off, 235, 249–52 Slovakia, 62, 64, 74, 86 Slovenia, 62–3, 66, 86, 87, 169 Spain, 169, 208–10, 249–50 spam, 107, 109

stalking, 221–2

standing to sue, mutual recognition, 239–40

strict liability, 229 Stuyck, Jules, 136

Sweden, 12, 37, 164, 167, 169, 250 sweepstakes I, 236–8

sweepstakes II, 19, 241–4, 248–9

taste and decency, 9, 15, 87, 113, 135 telephone marketing, 107

television, 45, 55, 135 Terryn, E, 136 timeshares, 2, 14, 142–3

tobacco, advertising, 3–4, 44, 92–3, 119 trade descriptions, 195, 225–8

trade marks:

copycat packaging and, 196, 200, 206

Germany, 206 UK law, 187, 195

trade names, 163 trade secrets, 180 transactional decisions:

meaning, 146–7, 223

UK implementation, 223–4, 228, 229 transition countries see CEE countries translations, 237, 253

transposition see implementation of UCPD

UCPD remedies: adequate remedies, 191 CEE countries, 87–8

cross-border, 19–20, 235–6 individual consumer actions, 235 injunctions, 235

interim relief, 235

national procedures, 30–1 penalties, 235–6

public and private remedies, 197–200 UK implementation, 229–31

Ulmer, Eugen, 52, 183, 189

Ulmer project, 34, 52, 57, 181, 182 unconscionability, 155

undue influence, 107

unfair commercial practices: benchmark, 6

burden of proof, 40 CEE countries

effect of EU membership, 78–81 pre-EU accession, 59–68

copycat packaging see copycat packaging

cross-border practices see crossborder consumer protection

ECJ jurisprudence, 108, 162–5 general prohibition, 20, 21–8, 139,

155, 265 insurance, 153–4

list see black list of unfair practices meaning, 21–2

pre-UCPD fragmentation, 51–9 proportionality, 24, 84 self-regulation, 28–30

UCPD standards, 40–1, 108 uneven standards, 6, 12–13

Unfair Commercial Practices Directive (UCPD):

2001 Green Paper, 49–50 amendment procedure, 21 broad approach, 5

CEE countries and, 83–8 challenges, 5–10 coherence, 83–5, 88–90 competence, 91–4 context, 91–101, 159–61 critique, 105–9

missed opportunity, 103–14

unfair competition and antitrust, 159, 161, 174

ECJ interpretation, 99–101, 231–2 enforcement see UCPD remedies general prohibition, 20, 21–8, 139,

155, 265

Index 289

harmonisation model see maximum harmonisation

horizontal approach, 48 impact assessment, 13

legislative process, 4–5, 11–15, 35, 104

travaux préparatoires, 93, 143 origins, 4–5, 11–12, 180, 181 scope see scope of UCPD structure, 20–1, 104, 105, 139–40 text, 255–80

unfair competition:

and antitrust law, 170, 171–4 CEE countries, 62–4

consumer protection and, 181–4, 189

copycat packaging see copycat packaging

definition, 167

EU legislative lacuna, 159, 176

from unfair competition to consumer protection, 52–4

Germany see Germany harmonisation of laws, 180, 181 Micklitz Report, 176n3, 179, 180–4,

189

national laws, 160, 166–70

UCPD and, 16–17, 170, 171–4, 176 unfair terms in consumer contracts:

Directive, 2

Dutch implementation, 217 UK implementation, 157

ECJ jurisprudence, 114, 231 list of terms, 100

regulatory mechanism, 141–2, 143 role of consumer organisations, 141

United Kingdom: advertising regulation, 113

consumer protection tradition, 183–4 contract, 146, 147

copycat packaging, 193, 194–7, 198– 9, 200–4

food labelling, 232 implementation of UCPD, 222–31 Office of Fair Trading, 198n15

OFT v Duchesne, 19, 241–4, 248–9 passing-off, 8, 187, 191, 196

Protection from Harassment Act 1997, 221–2

retail market, 197 self-regulation, 198

Trade Descriptions Act 1968, 195, 225–8, 227

UCPD

English law challenges, 154–7 filling legal lacuna, 103 implementation, 222–31 remedies, 149, 153, 199

unfair competition

comparison with Germany, 177–80 lacuna, 34, 53, 113, 168–9, 183,

191

United States:

deceptive practices, 23 ill-gotten gains, 249, 250 private enforcement, 252

technical assistance to CEE countries, 63

unfair competition, 178

Van Dyck, T, 136

VIEW, 240, 241

vulnerable groups, 39, 116, 123, 134–7

withdrawal rights, 14

Yugoslavia, 60, 63