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1600s - Europe

In a "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London" paper in 1684, Dr. Nehemiah Grew was the first European to publish friction ridge skin observations.

Dutch anatomist Govard Bidloo's 1685 book, "Anatomy of the Human Body" also described friction ridge skin (papillary ridge) details.

In 1686, Marcello Malpighi, an anatomy professor at the University of Bologna, noted fingerprint ridges, spirals and loops in his treatise. A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi" layer, which is approximately 1.8mm thick.

No mention of friction ridge skin uniqueness or permanence was made by Grew, Bidloo or Malpighi.

In 1823, John Evangelist Purkinje, anatomy professor at the University of Breslau, published his thesis discussing nine fingerprint patterns, but he too made no mention of the value of fingerprints for personal identification

Sir Wm. Herschel

Herschel's FPs recorded over a period of 57 yrs Herschel's fingerprints recorded over a period of 57 years 1858 - Herschel

The English first began using fingerprints in July of 1858, when Sir William James Herschel, Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly district in Jungipoor, India, first used fingerprints on native contracts. On a whim, and without thought toward personal identification, Herschel had RajyadharKonai, a local businessman, impress his hand print on a contract.

Konai - Herschel Contract

The idea was merely "... to frighten [him] out of all thought of repudiating his signature." The native was suitably impressed, and Herschel made a habit of requiring palm prints--and later, simply the prints of the right Index and Middle fingers--on every contract made with the locals. Personal contact with the document, they believed, made the contract more binding than if they simply signed it. Thus, the first wide-scale, modern-day use of fingerprints was predicated, not upon scientific evidence, but upon superstitious beliefs.

As his fingerprint collection grew, however, Herschel began to note that the inked impressions could, indeed, prove or disprove iden-

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tity. While his experience with fingerprinting was admittedly limited, Sir William Herschel's private conviction that all fingerprints were unique to the individual, as well as permanent throughout that individual's life, inspired him to expand their use.

TEXT

HANDWRITING IN FORENSICS

A person`s handwriting has long been recognized as a form of human identification. Handwriting, like fingerprints, contains a combination of characteristics. One of the first things the forensic scientist looks for is the way the lines form the letters. He looks at strokes, pressure, slants, heights, loops, letter spacing, proportions, dotted «is» and crossed «ts» strokes etc. The writing strokes consist of lines and curves in various directions, forming individual letter shapes. Lines can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal. Curves are loops, circles, or parts of circles. Letter designs are the most easilуidentifiable feature of handwriting. Forgers copy letter designs while disregarding other characteristics of the writing. Each letter has a distinguishing element that makes it unique. For example, the t has crossbar, the i and j have a dot, and the f is the only lower case cursive letter that spans all three zones of writing because it has both upper loop and a lower loop. The letter p can occupy both zones if the upstroke is added. Connecting strokes joint the letters in words. They are also called ligatures. Letters in a word may be connected or disconnected. Connectors can consist of arches, angles, or thread connections.

When analyzing writing style, the forensic scientist looks at the handwriting in general, much like you would look at a painting. Make mental notes of the most outstanding traits and try to get a general feeling of the writer. Then, determine the emotional energy of the writer. This is the most important factor of the personality of the

writer. A forensic scientist also looks to see if people make ornaments such as circles, etc. The scientist also looks at spelling, punctuation, and grammar. Spelling and punctuation cannot be used exclusively to identify handwriting, but they can aid in identification. All of these characteristics are useful in identifying the writing of a letter or a document. The examiner must be cognizant of the differences between “class characteristics” and “individual characteristics”. Class characteristics are those which are common to a group such as a particular

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writing system, family grouping, foreign language system, or professional group. Individual characteristics are those which are personal or peculiar letters or letter combinations, which, taken together, would not occur in the writing of another person. For example, pen scope is the distance the pen covers before the writer moves his or her hand to continue the writing act. It is possible to identify the pen scope by the breaks between letters, syllables, or words. This is one of the factors that can assist in the identification of a particular writer because pen scope is an individual characteristic.

When a forensic scientist suspects a person in a forgery case, one of the first things he does is to get a handwriting sample from that suspect - an exemplar. Usually, the scientist tries to get the suspect to write the same text as the suspected forged document with the same type of writing instrument as the forgery (pencil, ballpoint, pen, fountain pen, marker, etc.). If the forensic scientist has enough handwriting samples from the suspect, he can usually determine whether or not the suspect has written certain documents.

Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты русским словам и словосочетаниям.

Почерк; образец почерка; написание черты, перечеркивающей буквы t, f; общие характеристики; индивидуальные особенности; расстояние между буквами; постановка точки надбуквойi; подделка; опознавание человека; определить эмоциональное состояние, должен знать разницу; степень связанности.

Taking Fingerprints and Photos

Prior to 1985, the police had very limited fingerprinting rights. However, the law now gives a wide right to take fingerprints. A senior police officer can authorize the taking of a suspect’s fingerprints if he thinks the person has been involved in an offence, provided the taking of the fingerprints may tend to prove (or disprove) that guilt. Once a suspect has been charged, in writing, with a specific offence, the police have even greater powers - if the offence is of the sort that is recorded in police records (most non-trivial offences) then they can take fingerprints. If a suspect is subsequently acquitted of the charge against him. Then the fingerprints must be destroyed. The suspect can insist on witnessing the destruction.

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Roughly similar rules apply to the taking of photos. If it is a recordable offence that he has been charged with, then the police can take photos; once again, the photos must be destroyed if he is subsequently acquitted of the charge. In addition, there is a general right for the police to photograph groups of people when arresting several people at a time (i.e. they can photograph each person at the time of arrest, so there is a record of who was arrested, where, and by whom). Although the police can use force to take a suspect’s fingerprints there seems to be no legal right for them to use force to take a photograph. So, if 2 suspect refuses to cooperate (e.g. puts his hands in front of his face) then - in theory - there is nothing the police can do, and if they use force the suspect would be able to sue for damages.

Grammar

МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ THIS/THESE, THAT/THOSE

Местоимения this (этот) и that (тот) имеют формы мн. числа, соответственно: these (эти) и those (те). Если эти местоимения в предложении выполняют функцию подлежащего, то при грамматическом анализе предложения нужно искать сказуемое в соответствующемчисле. Вэтомслучаеthese обычнопереводитсяони.

Местоимения that / those употребляются также как слова - заместители тех существительных, которые были употреблены ранее. Главным признаком такого употребления является наличие предлога (обычно of) или причастия после that/those.

Слово that также может являться относительным местоимением или союзом со значением «что /который/ то, что», если оно находится перед придаточным предложением.

The Infinitive

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The main task of crime investigation is to provide evidence of guilt or innocence of a suspect.

Главная задача расследования преступления – это предоставить доказательства вины или невиновности подозреваемого.

3.Дополнение: He hates to tell lies.

Он ненавидит лгать.

No one likes to be told lies.

Никто не любит, когда ему лгут.

The juvenile was sorry to have joined a youth gang.

Подросток пожалел, что вступил в молодежную банду .

4.Определение:

Everyone has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty.

У каждого есть право считаться невиновным до тех пор, пока не будет доказана вина.

5. Обстоятельство:

To find the truth and reconstruct the crime the police have to perform a number of investigative actions.

Чтобы выяснить истину и воссоздать преступление, полиции приходиться выполнять ряд следственных действий.

Ex. 1. Practice translating the sentences with the Infinitive as an attribute:

Обратите внимание на период инфинитива-определения. Его место в предложении – после определяемого существительного, отвечает на вопрос «какой?». Переводится:

а) существительным в косвенном падеже с предлогом; б) неопределенной формой глагола;

в) придаточным определительным предложением с союзом «который» и с модальными глаголами «надо», «следует», «можно» или в будущем времени.

1.Many measures to prevent crime have been taken lately.

2.It is a rule to remember.

3.These are subject to study this term.

4.The first thing to be done during crime investigation is to determine whether an offence has really been committed.

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5.The investigator had a strong desire to interrogate the suspect

at once.

6.The police have a lot of questions to put to a suspect.

7.The field criminalist has collected physical evidence to be examined at the crime laboratory.

8.To interview this witness was a chance not to be missed.

Ex. 2 Translate the sentences with the Infinitive as an adverbial modifier of purpose:

Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели стоит в начале предложения (перед подлежащим) или в конце предложения. Перед инфинитивом в этой функции могут быть союзы in orderчтобы, so as – чтобы, с тем чтобы.

1.To investigate and solve this case the police had to interview a lot of people.

2.To establish corpus deliciti and elements of the offence the investigator should examine the case thoroughly and accurately.

3.In order to identify the perpetrator the police officer used the testimony of eyewitnesses.

4.The prosecutor presented sufficient evidence to bring charges of burglary.

5.Trace evidence discovered at the crime scene appeared helpful in order to suspect.

6.The investigator should record all relevant information concerning the crime so as not to forger it.

The Infinitive Constructions

Complex Object – Сложное дополнение

Существительное или Местоимение + инфинитив

The prosecutor wanted the witness to make a statement.

Прокурор хотел, чтобы свидетель сделал заявление. Сложное дополнение представляет собой сочетание суще-

ствительногоилиместоимениявобъектномпадежесинфинитивом.

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Стоит на обычном третьем месте после сказуемого, выраженного следующими группами глаголов:

1.Глаголы мыслительной деятельности (think – думать, полагать; know – знать; believe – считать, полагать; consider – считать; expect – ожидать; suppose – предполагать; suspect – подозре-

вать; understand – понимать; etc.);

2.Глаголы восприятия органами чувств (see-видеть; hear – слышать; notice – замечать; observe – наблюдать; feel – чувствовать; etc.);

3.Глаголы желания/ нежелания (want – хотеть; wish – желать; like – любить, нравиться; would like – хотелось бы; dislike – не любить, не нравиться; hate – ненавидеть; etc.);

4.Глаголы, обозначающие просьбу, приказы, разрешения (order – приказать; make – заставлять; let –позволять; allow – разрешать; ask – просить, etc.).

Сложное дополнение переводится на русский язык придаточным дополнительным предложением, вводимыми союзами что, чтобы, как, в которых существительное или местоимение является подлежащим, а инфинитив – сказуемым в личной форме глагола.

Ex. 3. Practise translating the sentences with the complex object:

1.The police suspect this man to have committed several larcenies.

2.Evidence proved the man’s alibi to be a complete fabrication.

3.The defendant asked the advocate to make a statement.

4.The neighbors saw a stranger enter the house.

Compare : The neighbors saw a stranger entering the house.- the action was in progress.

5.The defendant wanted his case to be tried with a jury.

6.The public expected the court to impose severe punishment for the conspiracy of committing a terror act.

7.The police ordered all unauthorized persons to leave the crime

scene.

Complex Subject – сложное подлежащее

личное местоимение в страдательном залоге

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This man is known to have committed a serious crime.

Известно, чтоэтотчеловексовершилсерьезноепреступление. Сложное подлежащее представляет собой сочетание существительного или личного местоимения в именительном падеже с

инфинитивом.

Глаголами-сказуемыми в предложениях со сложным подлежащим бывают следующие группы глаголов:

1. В страдательном залоге:

а) Глаголы мыслительной деятельности (think – думать, полагать; know – знать; believe – считать , полагать; consider – считать; expect – ожидать; suppose – предполагать; suspect – подозре-

вать; etc.);

б) Глаголы восприятия органами чувств (see-видеть; hear– слышать; notice –замечать; etc.).

в) Глаголы, выражающие сообщение (announce – объявлять; say – говорить ; report –сообщать ; state – заявлять ; etc. ).

2. В действительном залоге: Seem –казаться;

Happen – случаться;

Prove – оказываться, доказывать; Appear – оказываться.

3. Фразы:

To be likely – вероятно;

To be unlikely – маловероятно;

To be sure /to be certain – несомненно, обязательно, бесспорно, непременно.

Перевод предложений с данной конструкцией следует начинать со сказуемого, глаголом в неопределенной-личной форме (говорят, сообщили, известно), затем следует поставить союзы что или как, за которыми следует придаточное предложение, в котором существительное или местоимение является подлежащим, а инфинитивсказуемым в личной форме .

Ex. 4 Practice translating the sentences with the Complex Subject:

Examples:

The car was seen to disappear from the crime scene.

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Видели, как машина скрылась с места происшествия. They are reported to have finished the investigation.

Сообщают, что они уже закончили расследование. He proved to be a very experienced specialist.

Оказалось, что он очень опытный специалист.

1.Fingerprints are known to have been used as evidence since old times.

2.The crime is supposed to have been committed by a group of juveniles.

3.The laboratory tests proved to support the investigator’s hypothesis.

4.The prosecutor is sure to present sufficient evidence.

5.She is said to be investigating a case of murder.

6.The criminal was heard to enter the house.

7.The witness is supposed to give an important testimony.

Modal verbs

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