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PART III

THE HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FACULTY

I. HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Thing, sink, plan, cleaning, thank, classification, think, corrugation, blading, sin, blank, thin, sing, following, operation, construction, tank,

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foundation, frank, building, link, mowing, common, interesting, tunneling, crank, keeping, deflection, clean.

3. Read and translate the text.

THE HIGHWAY ENGINEERING FACULTY

СThe students of this faculty are trained in the following qualifications:

Operation and Maintenance of Automobile Roads and Air Fields, Construction of Bridges and Tunnels, Highway Economy and Management and Environmental Engineering.

иSubgrade is the foundation of the road. Subbase is the middle layer of the road, it’s made of gravel, crushed stone or different mixtures. Between

The students of the first qualification study the classification of roads and the structure of a highway. Any highway engineer knows the following classification of roads: state, federal, regional, country and city roads and

streets.

which alsoбАbelong to a highway. To train competent engineers a number of specialized subjects are includedДin the curriculum of the faculty. Such subjects include: Building Materials, Hydraulics and Hydrology, Geology, Geodesy, Soil Mechanics, Bases and Foundations of Transport Structures and

The road design consists of the subgrade, subbase and pavement.

subgrade and subbase there is drainage layer, which is usually made of sand. The upper layer of the road is pavement, made of asphalt concrete or cementconcrete.

Besides, the students of the faculty are acquainted with such artificial

structures as bridges, culverts, viaducts, overpasses, tunnels, retaining walls

Underground Communications.

Since the purpose of roads and bridges is to convey traffic, the highway and bridge engineers have common tasks. It isИthe matter of primary concern

for bridge and tunnel engineers to calculate the loads properly. That’s why they should pay great attention to such subjects as Theoretical Mechanics and The Strength of Materials.

The students of the second qualification study various types of bridges. The history of tunneling is also very interesting aspect of teaching. The graduates with this qualification work at designing bridges, tunnels, air fields and different artificial structures, and also at the construction of all mentioned facilities.

The matter of primary concern for a road-building engineer is also knowing the properties of road-building materials. The materials used in road construction are: Portland cement concrete, bituminous materials and mixtures, asphalt-concrete, sand, gravel, limestone, crushed stone and cinder.

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All this can be accomplished with economical factors. The single objective of economic analysis is to determine whether it is profitable to make the improvement or purchase, or which alternative is the more economical. There are two main elements of cost in highway economy: 1) the

annual cost of the highway facility, and 2) the annual cost of operating motor vehicle. The sum of these two cost elements is the highway transportation Сcost. The goal of design and operation of the highways is to achieve a

minimum sum of these two cost elements.

The road-building engineers deal not only with the building of roads but also with their maintenance and repair. Highway maintenance is the preserving and keeping of each roadway, structure and facility as nearly as possible in its original condition. The result of adequate highway maintenance is smooth, safe, and efficient roadways, clear waterways, and

theoreticalбАmechanics, construction of bridges, drainage layer, classification of roads, underground communications, middle layer of the road.

5. Find the add word in each chain using information from the text. - state, federal, regional, underground, country and city roads and streets; - subgrade, highway, subbase, pavement;

- arch, rigid-frame, beam, truss, arched cantilever, crushed stone, concrete slab, leaf, lattice, suspension bridges.

6. Find synonyms.

Building, maintenance, operation, highway, qualification, design,

7.Put the verbs in brackets into the required form.

1.The highway engineering faculty (to train) the students in several qualifications. 2. The road structure (to consist) of the subgrade, subbase, drainage layer and pavement. 3. For building the road various building materials (to use). 4. The road pavement (to make) usually of asphaltconcrete or cement-concrete. 5. Various artificial structures also (to belong) to the road construction. 6. The curriculum of the faculty (to induce) a lot of specialized subjects. 7. The most part of transportation (to employ) by means of roads. 8. The highway development policy (to induce) the construction, maintenance and operation. 9. The designing of roads also (to study) at the

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faculty. 10. The economic analysis (to be) the most important factor in road construction. 11. The highway economy (to include) two main elements. 12. The sum of two cost elements (to constitute) the highway transportation cost. 13. The motor vehicles (to influence) the roadway condition. 14. The damage of the pavement (to cause) by the motor vehicle loads. 15. The traffic safety (to provide) by many factors of road maintenance.

1.Each highway engineer has unavoidable contact with three broad aspects of highway policies: development, operational and regulatory. The development policy deals with the construction, maintenance and operation of the highways. The operational policy concerns operation of the vehicles, because it greatly results in planning and design of the roads. The regulatory policy mainly concerns general regulation of transportation.

2.The roadway structure is the subject to the wheel loads of motor vehicles, which result in deflection of the surface and the underlying layers. The applied loads cause roughening and cracking of the pavement and in some cases can lead to the failure of road structure. In such cases the repair is needed. But it is much better to maintain the road properly.

3.Highway maintenance involves patching, filling ruts, removing surface corrugations, pouring cracks, blading surfaces, cleaning ditches and culverts,

repairing bridges and fighting floods. It also includes operation of the highway as a safe, efficient and pleasing link in the nation’s highly importantИ

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transportation system. This adds such duties as erecting signs and traffic control, painting traffic stripes, mowing grass and weeds, clearing away trash, removing snow, spreading cinders and other services which the public has come to expect.

4. The students of the faculty also study the designing of roads. The keystone of modern highway design is to make the suitability of the highway for Сvehicle and driver as nearly perfect as possible. The designing of roads should be directed to eliminating accidents. The alignment should be the best obtainable when topography and urban development are considered. Sharp horizontal curvature should be avoided at the end of long tangents where surprise factor would cause many accidents. It is axiomatic that the longer the

tangents, the flatter should be the connecting curve.

10. Read the text on history of road networks development.

Mediterranean Sea – Средиземное море

EARLY ROADS

Traces of early roads have been found which antedate recorded history. The first hard surfaces appeared in MesopotamiaИsoon after discovery of the wheel about 3500 B.C. On the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea a stone-surfaced road constructed before 1500 B.C. was found. The direction in the Bible “make straight in the desert a high road“ refers to a road constructed soon after 539 B.C. between Babylon and Egypt. In the western Hemisphere evidence exists of extensive road systems constructed by the Mayan, Aztec, and Incan people of Central and South America. The Romans bound their empire together with an extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome. The Appian Way, constructed southward about 312 B.C. illustrates the elaborate procedures that the Romans employed. First a trench was excavated to such a depth that the finished surface would be at ground level. The pavement was placed in three courses: a layer of small broken stones; a layer of small stones mixed with mortar and firmly tamped

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into place, and a wearing course of massive stone blocks, set and bedded in mortar. Many such roads are still in existence after almost 2000 years.

With the fall of the Roman Empire, road building became a lost art. It was not until the 18th century that Tresaguet (1716-1796) in France developed

improved construction methods that at a later time, under Napoleon, made possible a great system of French roads. Highway development in England Сfollowed soon after that in France. Mac. Adam (1756 - 1836) in particular

made use of crushed stone as a road-surfacing material in a manner that is still widely used with some modifications. Both in France and in England the problem was chiefly to produce a road surface usable under all conditions of weather.

иroads were the real cause of the Whisky Rebellion in western Pennsylvania in 1794 (the farmers of this area objected to a tax on the whisky that they were

Few roads were constructed during the history of the United States.

Most early settlements were located along bays or rivers, and transportation

was largely by water, on foot or horseback. Roads development was

“CumberlandбАroad” from Cumberland to wheeling was financed by the Federal government and was Дoriginally toll-free. It was authorized by Congress in 1806, and was completed 10 years later. It was 20ft in width, and

extremely slow for a time after the Revolutionary War’s end in 1783. Poor

making from grain). Construction of the Philadelphia-Candcaster Turnpike resulted from this incident. It was a toll road 62 miles long, surfaced to a width of 24ft with hand-broken stone and gravel.

Between 1795 and 1830 numerous other turnpikes, particularly in the

northeastern states, were built. For example, the “Old National Pike” or

consisted of a 12-in. bottom and a 6-in. top course of hand-broken stone. Some 20 more years elapsed before the road was completed to St. Louis.

The extension of turnpikes in the United States was abruptly halted by the development of the railroads. At the endИof the century, approximately 300 years after the first settlement, the United States could claim little distinction because of the character of its roads and turned to the countries of Europe for information of seeking knowledge on road-building methods. There were strong demands for rural road improvement although great improvements were made in city streets. After that the state highways continued to expand more than 2 decades.

Organization which coordinates the work concerning highways is called American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO). It was established in 1914. Among other duties it prepares specifications, manuals, standards and publishes a quarterly magazine “American Highways”, which reports on current highway subjects.

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11. Complete the sentences from the text with omitted words.

1. ... of early roads have been found which antedate recorded history.

2. The Romans bound their empire together with an extensive system of roads radiating in many ... from Rome.

3. First a trench was excavated to such a ... that the finished surface would be at ground level.

4. Both in France and in England the problem was chiefly to produce a road

... usable under all conditions of weather.

5. The Philadelphia-Candcaster Turnpike was a ... road 62 miles long,

13. Complete the table using information from the text «Early roads» (ex. 10).

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14. Read the text on highway economy and answer the questions.

What is the role of roads in society? What economical benefit can they bring?

What aspects constitute highway construction cost?

СHighways are constructed because they provide benefits to society as a

whole or as individuals. Good transportation facilities raise the level of the entire economy by providing for ready transportation of goods; they are of assistance in problems of national defense; they make easier the provision of community services like police and fire protection, medical care, schooling, and delivery of the mails; they open added opportunities for recreation and travel.

иHighways benefit the landowner because ready access makes his property more valuable. They benefit the motor-vehicle user through reduced cost of

money invested.бА

vehicle operation, savings in time, reduction in accidents, and increased comfort and ease of driving. On the other hand, road improvements take money that might be used for other productive purposes by individuals or by government. They can be justified only if the benefits exceed the costs entailed in providing them, including some allowance for return on the

The total cost of motor transportationДis the essential consideration in long-term planning for highways. For many years attention was focused

largely on the relative economy of various types of road surfacing, and later on the costs of motor-vehicle operation. The direction in highway economics includes the following: cost of motor-vehicle operation; cost of motor-fuel consumed, oil consumption, tire costs, vehicleИrepair and maintenance, depreciation, stopping and starting an automobile costs, accidents costs.

15. Give a talk on your speciality (highway engineering, highway economy).

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II.BRIDGE ENGINEERING

1.Read the words and study them by heart.

Bridge, general, grade, alignment, highway, engineer, aiming, design, rigid, carrying, stage, right, angle, large, opening, building, rigid, loading, along, longer, weight, straight, stringer, slightly, length, greatly, advantage, wing.

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BRIDGE ENGINEERING

иsuperstructures carrying the roadway between these supports. Types of bridges include slab, truss, arch, and suspension bridges, each with a

Bridge engineering is one of the oldest specialities of our academy. Highway bridge engineers use the same analytical tools as other structural

engineers. Principal differences are in clearance and loading requirements.

alignment.бАSometimes there may be sharp turns at the approaches because the most favourable bridge site was theДsole criterion for the location. Today the general policy is to determine the proper highway location and require the

Bridges consist of substructures of abutments and piers under

distinctive form of superstructure. Rigid frames are bridges in which the substructure and superstructure are rigidly joined. A further distinction is made in terms of materials, the most common of which are reinforced concrete, steel, and timber.

The important construction for the bridge structure is the approach

bridge engineer to furnish structures for it. This of course results in more expensive crossings, for skew bridges cost more than rightangle ones, and the

introduction of horizontal and vertical curvature into large bridges creates serious design and construction problems. However,Иthe end result is a better

roadway. When the approximate location is fixed, there must be a complete and extensive report and special survey for the site. It should include accurate data on the channel or waterway for all stages of water, the foundation conditions, and the stream character.

The form and proportion of the structures are varied considerably in different situations and are matters for cooperative determination. Arch and rigid-frame-type bridges with stone masonry walls have been commonly accepted on many parkways as appropriate for the short span over a highway and over small streams. The concrete iron bridge has also been popular along parkways, because of its lower costs. Today there is a tendency for highway bridgework to be a beam-type open-deck structure, supported by columns and with little emphasis on abutments.

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