33. What types of nationalism do you know? Explain each of them

Certain forms of nationalism are without doubt illiberal and intolerant. This applies when nationhood is defined in narrow or exclusive terms, creating a sharp divide between those who are members of a nation and those who are alien to it. Exclusive nationalism is usually a response to the perception that the nation is under threat from within or without, a perception that provokes a heightened sense of unity and is often expressed in hostility and sometimes violence. Exclusive nationalism also has clear implications for international relations. The integrity of the nation can be challenged by a broad variety of factors, including rapid socio-economic change, political instability, communal rivalry, an upsurge in immigration and the growing power of neighbouring states. In such cases, nationalism offers a vision of an ordered, secure and cohesive community. However, this form of nationalism invariably rejects liberal-democratic principles and is more commonly associated with authoritarian creeds. This can most graphically be seen in the case of fascism, which preaches a militant form of nationalism called ultra-nationalism. Termed ‘integral nationalism’ by Charles Maurras (1862–1952), leader of the right-wing Action Franc ̧aise, this demands the absolute subordination of the individual to the nation. Typically, integral nationalism breeds a sharp distinction between ‘us’ and ‘them’, between an in-group and an out-group. Not surprisingly, its clearest manifestation has been found in the pseudo-scientific doctrines of Aryan superiority and anti-Semitism preached by the German Nazis.

34. What is a nation-state?

Nationalists have proclaimed the nation-state to be the highest form of political organization, reflecting as it does the principle that the nation is the sole legitimate unit of political rule. In practice, however, the nation-state is an ideal type and has probably never existed in perfect form anywhere in the world. No state is culturally homogeneous; all contain some kind of cultural or ethnic mix. As a principle to move towards, however, the nation-state represents independence and self-government; it has elicited support from peoples in all parts of the world, almost regardless of the political creed they may espouse. The attraction of the nation-state is that it offers the prospect of both cultural cohesion and political unity.

35. What is the difference between 'nation' and ‘ethnic group’? Explain, give examples.

An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. By comparison, a nation is more impersonal, abstract, and overtly political than an ethnic group. It is a cultural-political community that has become conscious of its autonomy, unity, and particular interests. Nations/State are made up of a variety of groups of people and have clear boundaries and borders (though they sometimes change), at least in theory. Empires have a way of extending their powers across established borders but in general the borders of a State have to be in some sort of agreement, or else you have conflict. An ethnic group is a group of people that self-identify as having something particular in common, in their language, origin stories, gender norms, and a host of other factors. There can be many ethnic groups in a singular state.