What’s a Neutrino?

A neutrino, an elementary particle whose existence was first suggested by physicist Wolfgang Pauli in 1930, is electrically neutral and can pass through ordinary substances intact, rarely interacting with other particles. Neutrinos are believed to have a very small mass or possibly no mass whatsoever.

Neutrinos are one of the fundamental particles which make up the universe. They are also one of the least understood.

Neutrinos are similar to the more familiar electron, with one crucial difference: neutrinos do not carry electric charge. Because neutrinos are electrically neutral, they are not affected by the electromagnetic forces which act on electrons. Neutrinos are affected only by a “weak” sub-atomic force of much shorter range than electromagnetism, and are therefore able to pass through great distances in matter without being affected by it. If neutrinos have mass, they also interact gravitationally with other massive particles, but gravity is by far the weakest of the four known forces.

Three types of neutrinos are known; there is strong evidence that no additional neutrinos exist, unless their properties are unexpectedly very different from the known types. Each type of neutrino is related to a charged particle (which gives the corresponding neutrino its name). Hence, the “electron neutrino” is associated with the electron, and two other neutrinos are associated with heavier versions of the electron called the muon and the tau (elementary particles are frequently labeled with Greek letters, to confuse the layman).

Виберіть правильний варіант.

1. The existence of a neutrino was predicted by physicist ___.

a) Enrico Fermi b) Niels Bohr c) Wolfgang Pauli

2. Neutrinos are ___.

a) electrically neutral b) positively charged c) negatively charged

3. There are ___ types of neutrinos.

a) seven b) two c) three

4. It is considered that a neutrino has a very small ___.

a) mass b) energy c) size

Граматика. Пасивний стан дієслова груп Continuous, Perfect.

Continuous Passive Voice.

Стверджувальна форма

Запам’ятайте! В Passive Voice не використовується форма Continuous у майбутньому часі. Замість Future Continuous вживається Future Indefinite

Present	Past
I am being asked.	I was being asked.
The letter is being written.	The letter was being written.
The letters are being written.	The letters were being written.

Питальна форма (Загальні запитання)

Запам’ятайте! У питальній формі змінюється порядок слів: перед підметом ставиться перше допоміжне дієслово.

Present	Past
Am I being asked?	Was I being asked?
Is the letter being written?	Was the letter being written?
Are the letters being written?	Were the letters being written?

Заперечна форма

Запам’ятайте! Заперечна частка not ставиться після першого допоміжного дієслова.

Present	Past
I am not being asked.	I was not being asked.
The letter is not being written.	The letter was not being written.
The letters are not being written.	The letters were not being written.

Perfect Passive Voice

Стверджувальна форма

Present	Past	Future
I have been asked.	I had been asked.	I shall have been asked.
The letter has been written.	The letter had been written.	The letter will have been written.
Letters have been written.	Letters had been written.	Letters will have been written.

Питальна форма (Загальні запитання)

Present	Past	Future
Have I been asked?	Had I been asked?	Shall I have been asked?
Has the letter been written?	Had the letter been written?	Will the letter have been written?
Have letters been written?	Had letters been written?	Will letters have been written?

Заперечна форма

Present	Past	Future
I have not been asked.	I had not been asked.	I shall not have been asked.
The letter has not been written.	The letter had not been written.	The letter will not been written.
Letters have not been written.	Letters had not been written.	Letters will not have been written.

Вправа 6. Перекладіть речення. Визначте час та стан присудка у кожному реченні.

1. The Nobel Prize has been awarded to British scientists for this outstanding discovery. 2. Lasers have been used by communication and building workers, drillers etc. They have been made to help doctors and scientists in their research. 3. Experts believe that by the end of the decade lasers will have been used in many fields of technology. 4. When modern computers had been designed they found wide application in industry. 5. Polypropylene resins are being used in films, tubes and hundreds of other industrial articles. 6. Polymers are machined much better and easier than wood, stone or metal, therefore so much attention is being paid to these man-made materials at present. 7. The construction of the road was being completed when the commission arrived. 8. When I come home the family will be watching TV.

Вправа 7. Перетворіть речення із активного стану у пасивний.

1. We use these clothes only on special occasions. 2. He published the book last year. 3. Somebody has opened the door and switched on the light. 4. They will answer you in some days. 5. Who wrote this novel? 6. They showed her the easiest way to do it. 7. We have looked for the wallet everywhere. 8. Nobody has visited him. 9. They will have finished the work by twelve. 10. Students are taking the exams now.

Домашнє завдання

Вправа 8. Поставте присудок у реченнях в усі форми пасивного стану. Виберіть необхідний індикатор часу: always, often, in 2001, yesterday, at five o’clock tomorrow, in a week, today, by the end of the month, when I came in, by the time of our arrival, at the moment, during the break, just.

1. The articles are translated by Peter. 2. The devices are constructed by our engineers.

Вправа 9. Визначте часову форму пасивного стану дієслова у кожному реченні.

1. Interesting and important research works are made all over the world. An interesting research in the field of power engineering is being currently made at our Institute. 2. Weather conditions in the North were studied by meteorologists daily. The information about these conditions was being studied by our group during a week. 3. The accuracy of machine-tools will be improved from year to year. Only one machine-tool is being worked at in our laboratory. 4. The advantages of solar energy use are understood by everybody. Now solar energy and its application are being studied by lots of research groups. 5. New methods of obtaining polymers have been applied lately. 6. The flexible line that has been recently developed at our plant. It has greatly improved the production process. 7. A great number of experiments at the research institute had been made before the flood defense system was worked out. 8. Our workshop will have been equipped with new multipurpose machine-tools by the time when the reconstruction of the plant is over.

Вправа 10. Складіть розповідь про свій вищий навчальний заклад з використанням активних слів та виразів.