2. Valentine’s day.

No one really knows the actual origin of Valentine's Day. Many historians, however, seem to trace it to an ancient Roman festival called Lupercalia. This was held on February 15 to honor Faunus, the god of animal life, hunting, herding, the patron of husbandry, and the guardian of the secret lore of nature. After Christianity spread, some think this pagan festival eventually became Valentine's Day.

Other expects connect Valentine's Day with two saints of the early Christian church. According to one story, St. Valentine was a priest who would marry young couples against tbe orders of the Roman Emperor Claudius II, who believed that single young men made better soldiers. This story goes back to about A.D. 200.

There also was another St. Valentine who was a good friend to children. Because he would not worship the gods decreed by the Roman emperor, he was put in prison. While he was imprisoned, the children that be had befriended missed him and brought him loving notes. Many of the notes expressed the thought that "absence makes the heart grow fonder." He was supposedly executed on February 14 in A.D. 270. Some people think this is why we exchange friendly and caring messages on this day.

Others believe that the word valentine came from a Norman word galatine, which means a "gallant" or a "lover."

Some people connect the celebrating of Valentine's Day with an old English belief that birds choose their mates on February 14. This, too, is possible, since spring was less than a month away. The calendar used before 1582 was slightly different from the one we use now. Spring arrived on March 11 on the old calendar.

Many old-fashioned Valentine's Day customs involved ways single women could learn who their future husbands might be. In England in the 1700s, women wrote men's names on scraps of paper, rolled each in a ball of clay, and dropped them into water. The first paper that surfaced supposedly had the name of the woman's true love.

The custom of sending valentine cards started in Europe in the 1700s. Commercial valentines were first made in the early 1800s. Kate Greenaway, a British artist, was one of the leading makers of valentines. Her valentines are known for her drawings of little children and the varied shades of blues and greens that she favored.

Whatever the origin. Valentine's Day is celebrated in many parts of the world today and is a holiday for both young and old.

Task:

I. Answer the questions:

1. What are the versions of the origin of Valentine Day?

2. Who was St. Valentine?

3. When did the custom of sending valentine cards start?

4. How do you celebrate this day?

II. Retell the text.

3. Halloween

Everything started a very long lime ago, that is, in the 5th century B.C., in the place where today lies Great Britain and northern France. At that time, the Celts lived according to many beliefs and one of them is the beginning of this well-known celebration.

The Celts celebrated New Year on November 1st with a festival that indicated the end of the "Sun Season" and the beginning of the "Dark and Cold Season". It was a festival that the Celts of northern Europe (and the British Isles) marked with bonfires, to help the sun through the winter. Our modem celebration of "Halloween" is a descendant of the ancient Celtic fire festival called Samhain or "Summer’s End", and was celebrated with human sacrifice, augury (divination, foretelling events by signs omens) and prayer; for at this season spirits walked and evil had power over soul of men. The word is pronounced "sow-in", with "sow" rhyming with cow. In a very old tale, Samhain was the Lord of Death and Prince of Darkness.

The Druids had an autumn festival called Samhain (pronounced SAH win), or summer’s end. It was an occasion for feasting on all the kinds of food which had been grown during the summer. The custom of using leaves, pumpkins, and cornstalks as Halloween decorations comes from the Druids, The early peoples of Europe also had a festival similar to the Druid holiday.

The first meaning of Halloween was to frighten and send away the souls of the dead. It was believed that all the souls of people who had died that year would only go to heaven the day before. All Saints' Day (November 1st). "All Saints Day or "Hallows' Day" are synonyms, thus "Hallows’ Eve" is the day before Hallows' Day.

Halloween was brought to the United States of America by the Irish immigrants in 1840. The word Halloween means holy or sacred. The colors of Halloween are black and orange to suggest ideas of death and harvest.

Tasks:

1. Answer the questions:

   1. What is the History of Halloween?

   2. How did the Celts celebrate “Samhain”?

   3. Who was Samhain in an old table?

   4. What customs of Halloween decorations do come from the Druits?

   5. What was the 1-st meaning of Halloween?

   6. When was Halloween brought to the USA and by whom?

   7. What does the word “Halloween” mean?

   8. What are the colours of Halloween?

II. Tell about celebrating Halloween in different countries, in Russia.

4. Christmas in Russia!

St. Nicholas is especially popular in Russia. The legend is that the 11th-century Prince Vladimir travelled to Constantinople to be baptized, and returned with stories of miracles performed by St. Nicholas of Myra. Since then many Eastern Orthodox Churches have been named for the saint, and to this day, Nicholas is one of the most common names for Russian boys. The feast of St. Nicholas (December 6) was observed for many centuries, but after the communist revolution, the celebration of the feast was suppressed, only to return after the fall of Communism. Many other religious and folk traditions were suppressed during the communist era. Before the revolution, a figure called Babouschka would bring gifts for the children. Like Italy's La Befana, the story is that Babouschka failed to give food and shelter to the three wise men during their journey to visit the Christ Child. According to tradition, she still roams the countryside searching for the Christ Child and visiting the homes of children during the Christmas season. Babouschka never completely disappeared, and now in the post-communist era, has returned openly. Christmas trees were also banned by the Communist regime and were replaced by "New Year's" trees.

Most Christian Russians belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church, and it is customary to fast until after the first church service on January 6, Christmas Eve. The church in Russia still uses the old Julian calendar, therefore their Christmas celebration is 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar that we use.

Christmas Eve dinner is meatless but festive. The most important ingredient is a special porridge called kutya. It is made of wheatberries or other grains which symbolize hope and immortality, and honey and poppy seeds which ensure happiness, success, and untroubled rest. A ceremony involving the blessing of the home is frequently observed. The kutya is eaten from a common dish to symbolize unity. Some families used to throw a spoonful of kutya up to the ceiling. According to tradition, if the kutya stuck, there would be a plentiful honey harvest.

For many Russians, a return to religion represents a return to their old roots and their old culture. Throughout Russia, after Christmas Eve services, people carrying candles, torches, and homemade lanterns parade around the church, just as their grandparents and great-grandparents did long ago. The Krestny Khod procession is led by the highest-ranking member of the Russian Orthodox Church. After the procession completes its circle around the church, the congregation reenters and they sing several carols and hymns before going home for a late Christmas Eve dinner.

TASK:

I. Answer the questions:

1. Why is St.Nicholas so popular in Russia?

2. Do you know the legend about St.Nicholas?

3. Why was the celebration of the feast of St.Nicolas suppressed by the communists?

4. Who brought gifts for the children in Russia before the Revolution?

5. What Church do the most Christian Russians belong to?

6. When is Christmas Eve?

7. Does the Church in Russia still use the old Julian calendar?

8. What is the most important ingredient of Christmas Eve dinner in Russia?

9. Do you know the recipe of the fish?

10. What is the Krestny Khod?

11. Do people sing any carols and hymns on Christmas Eve?

2. Tell about different ways of celebration of Christmas in Russia.