Inland waters
The rivers of GB are short, their direction and character are determined by the position of the mountains. Most of the rivers flow by the eastward direction since the west coast is mountainous.
Due to the humid climate and abundant rainfall, the water level in the rivers is always high. The rivers seldom freeze in winter; most of them remain ice free. Many of the rivers are joined together by canals. This system of rivers and canals provides a good means of cheap inland water transport.
British rivers are not navigable for ocean ships, but they form deep estuaries, and strong tides penetrating into them prevent the formation of deltas. Most of the large ports of Great Britain are situated in the estuaries.
The most important rivers are Severn, flowing from the Cumbrian Mountains in Wales into the Bristol Channel, the Thames, flowing across the plains of south-eastern England and emptying into the North Sea, the Tyne and the Trent, flowing from the eastern slopes of the Pennines to the North Sea, the Mersey, flowing down the western slopes of the Pennines and emptying into the Irish Sea at Liverpool, and the Clyde in Scotland, which flows west across the Southern Uplands and on which the port of Glasgow is situated.
Owing to the fact that British lakes are rather small and have no outlets, they afford limited economic possibilities in the system of navigable waterways. But most of them, especially those situated in the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and north Lancashire, are famous for their unique beauty and picturesque surroundings. Famous is the English Lakes District, occupying a comparatively small area. It is a place of steep ridges and deep valleys, smooth slopes and deep lakes, ravines, waterfalls and green meadows. The Lake District is one of the most popular holiday districts in Great Britain.
Vegetation
Many parts of highland Britain have only thin, poor soils. As a result, there are large stretches of moorland in the Highlands of Scotland, the Pennines, the Lake District, the mountains of Wales and in some parts of north-east and south-west England. In most of these areas the farmers have cultivated only the valley lands and the plains where the soils are deeper and richer.
With its mild climate and varied soils, Britain has a rich natural vegetation. When the islands were first settled, oak forests have been cut down, and now woodlands occupy only about 7 per cent of the surface of the country. The most common trees are oak, beech, ash and elm, and in Scotland also pine and bitch. Most of the countryside England is agricultural land, about a third of which is arable, and the rest is pasture and meadow.
ANIMAL LIFE
The animal life of the British Isles is now much poorer than it was a few centuries ago. With the disappearance of forests, many forest animals, including the wolf, the bear, the boar, the deer and the Irish elk, have become practically extinct. There are foxes in most rural areas, and otters are found along many rivers and streams. Of smaller animals are mice, rats, hedgehogs, moles, squirrels, hares rabbits and weasels.
There are a lot of birds, including many song-birds. Blackbirds, sparrows and starlings are probably most common. There are many sea-birds, which nest round the coasts and often fly far inland in search of food or shelter in rough weather.
MINERAL RESOURCES
GB is rich in coal. There are rich coal basins in Northumberland, Lancashire, Nottinghamshire, South Wales, North Wales and Glasgow.
Among other resources, iron ores found alongside coal layers are of primary importance. There are tin and copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire, copper and lean mines in England. Lead and silver ores are also mined in Derbyshire and Cumberland and Lancashire.
Control questions:
1. What is the general slope of the land in GB?
2. What climate does Great Britain enjoy?
3. What are the characteristic features of this climate?
4. What mineral resources is GB rich in?
5. Why does GB have rich natural vegetation?
2- Lecture. Theme: Composition of the country
Plan: 1. England
2. Scotland
3. Wales
4. Northern Ireland
The aim of the lecture: To get acquainted with the parts of the UK, with their geographical position, climate and weather; 2 The largest rivers, lakes and mountains; vegetation; main economic regions; mineral resources and their deposits; general characteristics
Key words:
Lough Neagh- [lɔx'nei] –оз. Лох Ней
urban - городской
manufacture - производить
cradle - колыбель
oil rigs – нефтяная вышка
kilt –(шотландская) юбка
chieftain – вождь
tartan – шотландка (fabric)
thistle - чертополох
peninsula - полуостров
barley - ячмень
oats -овес
hay - сено
reforestation – восстановление лесных массивов
The content of the lecture: Historically the territory of the United Kingdom is divided into four parts: 1) England 2) Scotland 3) Wales 4) Northern Ireland
ENGLAND
Of the four parts which make up Great Britain England is the largest, the industrial and most densely populated part of the UK. It occupies an area of 131,8 thousand sq. km. Over 46 million people of the population of the UK live in England.
The greatest concentrations of population are in London, Birmingham and northwest industrial cities. The coasts of England are washed by the North Sea, the Irish Sea, the English Channel and the Strait of Dover. No part of England is more than 120 kilometers from the sea.
It is interesting to note that the sea has been important in the history of England. It was a good protection against the attacks of outside peoples. Fishing has always been an important industry, especially in the east. The sea also has a great effect on England’s climate.
There are many rivers in England. The longest and the most important is the Thames. The rivers are of great importance for communication and especially for carrying goods.
England is mostly a lowland country. There are upland regions in the north and the southwest, but the rest of England is almost flat.
Northern England, Midlands and Southern England – each part of England is different. The Lake District in Northern England with its lakes, mountains and valleys is a favourite holiday area. On either side of the Pennines the plains of Yorkshire and Lancashire stretch to the sea.
The wool industry is centered in Leeds and Bradford, the cotton industry in Manchester, iron ore goes to the steel, heavy machinery and shipbuilding industries of Newcastle and other cities. The industries of the Midlands, with Birmingham as its chief city, produce metal goods, from motor cars and railway engines to pins and buttons. The Midland plain makes good farm land.
In Southern England are found some of the oldest British settlements and traces of ancient monuments such as Stonehenge, which was built approximately 4000 years ago, and was used by ancient druids as a calendar to define the seasons and time.
Modern London is not one city that has steadily become larger through the centuries; it is a number of cities, towns, and villages that have, during the past centuries, grown together to make one vast urban area. London is situated upon both banks of the River Thames; it is the largest city in Britain and one of the largest in the world. Its population is about 7 million people.
London dominates the life of Britain. It is a big port and most important commercial, manufacturing and cultural centre. There is little heavy industry in London, but there is a wide range of light industry in Greater London. The City extends over an area of about 2.6 sq km. in the heart of London. About half a million people work in the City but only less than 6000 live here. It is the financial centre of the UK with many banks, offices and the Stock Exchange. But the City is also a market for goods of almost every kind, from all parts of the world.
The West End can be called the centre of London. Here are the historical palaces as well as the famous parks. Hyde Park with its Speaker’s Corner is also here. Among other parks are Kensington Gardens, St. James’s Park. In the West End is Buckingham Palace which is the Queen’s residence, and the Palace of Westminster which is the seat of Parliament.
The best known streets here are Whitehall with important Government offices, Downing Street, the London residence of the Prime Minister and the place where the Cabinet meets, Fleet Street where most newspapers have their offices, Harley Street where the highest-paid doctors live, and some others.
The name ‘West End’ came to be associated with wealth, luxury, and goods of high quality. It is the area of the largest department store, cinemas and hotels. There are about 40 theatres, several concert halls, many museums including the British Museum, and the best art galleries.
The port of London is to the east of the City. Here were kilometers of docks, and the great industrial areas that depended upon shipping. This is the East End of London, formerly unattractive in appearance, but now changing because of the introduction of new industries and very expensive housing.
SCOTLAND
Status: Part of United Kingdom
First Minister: Jack McConnell (2001)
Land area: 30,414 sq mi (78,772 sq km)
Population (1996 est.): 5,128,000; density per sq mi: 168.6
Capital (2003 est.): Edinburgh, 663,700 (metro. area), 460,000 (city proper)
Largest city: Glasgow, 1,361,000 (metro. area), 1,099,400 (city proper)
Monetary unit: British pound sterling (£)
Languages: English, Scots Gaelic
Religions: Church of Scotland, Roman Catholic, Scottish Episcopal Church, Baptist.
Scotland is the most northern of the countries that constitute the UK. It occupies an area of 78.8 thousand sq. km. It means that Scotland takes up one third of the territory of the British Isles, its population is not very big. It is the most northern part of the island of GB and is not far away from the Arctic Circle. That’s why it is not densely populated: its population is a little over 5 million people. The Cheviot Hills mark the boundary between England and Scotland. Apart from this land link with England, Scotland is surrounded by sea.
Scotland includes the Hebrides off the west coast, and the Orkney and Shetland Islands off the north coast. It is bounded by the North Sea in the east.
Scotland is divided into three regions: the Highlands, which is the most northern and the most under populated area with a harsh climate, the Lowlands, which is the most industrial region, with about three quarters of the population, and the Southern Uplands, with hills, which border on England. The Highlands of Scotland are among the oldest mountains in the world. They reach their highest point in Ben Nevis (1343m). Many valleys between the hills are filled with lakes, called lochs. The best-known is Loch Ness where some people think a large monster lives. The most important city here is Aberdeen which is the oil centre of Scotland. Ships and helicopters travel from Aberdeen to the North Sea oil rigs. Work on an oil rig is difficult and dangerous.
Most of the population of Scotland is concentrated in the Lowlands. The Lowlands are the cradle of the Scottish nation. Here, on the Clyde, is Glasgow, Scotland’s biggest city. Shipbuilding is one of its most important industries; other industries are iron and steel, heavy and light engineering and coal-mining.
Scotland had been an independent state and was joined into the UK in 1707, after a long struggle for its independence. One of the things that people associate with Scotland is the kilt. The kilt is a relic of the time when the clan system existed in the Highlands. Everybody in the clan had the same family name, like MacDonald or MacGregor (Mac means ‘son of’). The clan had its own territory and was ruled by a chieftain. Each clan had its own tartan.
Edinburgh has been the capital since the 15th century, when its fortified castle was the centre of Scotland’s resistance to its enemies. Edinburgh is the cultural centre of Scotland. It is associated with the names of George Gordon Byron and Walter Scott, Robert Louis Stevenson, Robert Burns and Arthur Conan Doyle, creator of Sherlock Holmes. It is also associated with the world-famous Edinburgh Festival of Music and Drama. The festival was first held in 1947 and has been held annually ever since. Its emblem is a thistle.
WALES
Status: Part of United Kingdom
First Secretary: Rhodri Morgan (2000)
Land area: 8,019 sq mi (20,768 sq km)
Population (1993 est.): 2,906,500
Capital and largest city (2003 est.): Cardiff, 676,400 (metro. area), 280,800 (city proper)
Monetary unit: British pound sterling (£)
Languages: English, Welsh
Religions: Calvinistic Methodist, Church of Wales, Roman Catholic
Wales is a peninsula washed by the sea on three sides: the Bristol Channel in the south, the St. George’s Channel in the west, and the Irish Sea in the north. Its territory is 20,8 thousand sq. km. Geographically Wales may be considered part of highland Britain, the Cumbrian Mountains occupying most of the land. It is an area of high mountains, deep valleys, waterfalls and lakes.
Atlantic Ocean. The valleys are sheltered by the high mountains from cold east winds. The climate is rather mild. Wales has never been densely populated. The Welsh have kept their own language, but English is spoken in town as well.
The chief economic activities of Wales include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism and other service industries. The economy is largely integrated into that of the United Kingdom. About 80 percent of the land Wales is used for agricultural purposes. In general the raising of livestock, mainly beef and dairy cattle and sheep, is more important than crop cultivation. Crops include barley, oats, potatoes, and hay. Forests cover about 12 percent of the land, and government reforestation programs are gradually increasing the area. The fishing industry is concentrated along the Bristol Channel.
Wales is home to a diverse manufacturing sector. The refining of metal ore, much of which is imported, has long been a major industry. Almost all tin plate and much of the aluminum of the sheet steel produced in Britain are made in Welsh plants. Since the 1940s many new industries have been established. These include oil automotive parts. And other high-technology manufactures has expanded. Milford Haven, in southwestern Wales, is a major petroleum-importing port and refining center.
Mining, once a mainstay of the economy, is no longer a major source of revenue or employment in Wales. The rich coal fields and iron or deposits of southern Wales helped fuel Britain’s Industrial Revolution. By the 1980s falling domestic demand and declining competitiveness in international markers forced most coal pits still operating in Wales to close. Welsh mines also produce limestone and slate.
NORTHERN IRELAND
Status: Part of United Kingdom
Languages: English, Irish (Gaelic) (both official)
Ethnicity/race: Celtic, English
Religions: Roman Catholic 88%, Church of Ireland 3%, other Christian 2%, none 4%
Literacy rate: 98% (1981 est.)
Land area: 5,452 sq mi (14,121 sq km)
Population (1998 est.): 1,688,600
Capital and largest city (2003 est.): Belfast, 484,800 (metro. area), 246,200 (city proper)
Other large cities: Cork, 193,400; Limerick, 84,900; Galway, 67,200
Monetary unit: British pound sterling (£)
Northern Ireland occupies the north-eastern part of Ireland, which is separated from the island of Great Britain by the North Channel. In the south-west Northern Ireland borders on the Irish Republic.
Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a plain of volcanic origin, deepening in the centre to from the largest lake of the British Isles, Lough Neagh.
Northern Ireland has a typical oceanic climate with mild damp winters and cold rainy summers. Forests are rather scarce, moors and meadows prevail. The north of Ireland was heavily forested and lightly populated until the 17th century, when it began to be farmed more intensively. Farms were small and incomes were supplemented by domestic production of linen. In the 19th century Belfast and the surrounding area became a world leader in the factory production of linen. Developments in shipbuilding and engineering followed, and industrial enterprises expanded in the period from 1850 to 1914. These heavy industries fared badly after World War 1 (1914-1918 ) and never fully recovered. Linen and shipbuilding are now small concerns.
The economy suffered considerably as a result of the post – 1969 political violence. Since the 1950s Northern Ireland has been the poorest region of the United Kingdom. The economy has revived in recent year as major British retailing chains have moved into the province, and the tourism industry has begun to achieve its full potential. Most of Northern Ireland’s import and export trade is with Great Britain. The Republic of Ireland is the next most important trading partner.
Most farms in Northern Ireland are small. Historically they began as tenant farms owned by the landlords of large estates. By the 1920s most were owned by the farmers who worked them. Agriculture in Northern Ireland largely revolves around livestock production – cattle, pigs, sheep, and poultry are main animals raised. Barley is the most important crop, followed by potatoes and oats. Although 20 percent of Ulster was still virgin forest in 1600, these forests had all but disappeared by 1700. Reforestation projects were not pursued until after 1945.
Control questions:
Which four parts is the UK historically divided into?
Where is the port of London situated? What makes its position convenient?
Which three regions can the territory of Scotland be divided into?
What part of Scotland can be called the cradle of the Scottish nation?
How do you explain the fact that there is a lot of rainfall in Wales ?
What language is spoken in Wales?
Where is the Northern Ireland situated? What country does it situated on?
What do people grow on their farms?
3- Lecture. Theme: National Economy and Chief Industries of the UK.
Plan: 1.Economy
2. Industrial Revolution
3. The years of self-confidence
4. Changes in the life of people
The aim of the lecture: To get acquainted with National Economy and Chief Industries of the UK.
Key words:
Newcastle ['nju:kа:sl] – Ньюкасл
Cardiff ['kа:dif] -Кардифф
Bristol [bristl] -Бристоль
Birmingham ['bә:miŋәm] - Бирмингем
Coventry ['k ɔvәntri] - Ковентри
Sheffield ['∫efi:ld] -Шеффилд
Belfast ['bеlfa:st] - Белфаст
enclosure- огораживание
peasant – крестьянин
spinner – прядильщик
weaver – ткач
enterprise – предприятие
remnants – остаток
Luddites –
limestone - известняковый
The content of the lecture: ECONOMY
Wool and Cloth making Industry. Many landowners found that they could make more money from breeding sheep than from growing crops. They could sell the wool for a good price to the rapidly growing cloth making industry. They needed more land for the sheep to graze, so they fenced off land that had always belonged to the whole village This process of fencing off common land is known as enclosures. Enclosures were often carried out against the law, but because magistrates were themselves land- lords, few peasants could not prevent it. As a result, many poor people lost the land which they had farmed, as well as the common land where they kept animals.
The production of cloth, the most important of England's products, reached its greatest importance during the 16th century. Clothmakers bought raw wool and gave it to spinners. The spinners were mostly women and children, who worked in their poor cottages for very little payment. After the spinners the wool was passed to weavers. When the cloth was ready, it was sold.
Coal and Steel. In the 16th century people learned to burn coal in stoves instead of wood. Coal gave greater heat when burning. By using coal instead of wood fires, people were able to produce greatly improved steel. Improved steel was used to make knives and forks, clocks, watches, nails and pins. Birmingham, by using coal fires to make steel, grew in the 16th century from a village into an important industrial city.
THE YEARS OF REVOLUTION
Industrial Revolution. By the early 18th century simple machines had already been invented. With the help of the machines, large quantities of simple goods could be made quickly and cheaply.
By the middle of the 18th century industry began to use coal for changing iron ore into good quality iron or steel. This made Britain the leading iron producer in Europe. Increased iron production made it possible to manufacture new machinery for other industries. One invention led to another, and increased production in one area led to increased production in others. In the middle of the century other countries were buying British uniforms, equipment and weapons for their armies. To meet this increased demand, better methods of Production were found, and new machinery was invented which replaced handwork. In 1764 a spinning machine was invented which could do the work of
Factories supplied with machinery did not need so many workers as before, and that created a serious problem: a lot of workers became unemployed. Workers tried to join together to protect themselves against powerful employers. Riots occurred, led by the unemployed who had been replaced at the factories by machines. In 1799 some of these rioters, known as Luddites, began breaking up the machinery which had put them out of work. The situation in the country was very tense. People were afraid of a revolution like the one in France.
THE YEARS OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
Industrial Power. In 1851 Queen Victoria opened the Great Exhibition of the Industries of All Nations in the Crystal Palace in London. The aim of the Exhibition was to show the world the greatness of Britain's industry. No other nation could produce as much at that time. By 1850 Britain was producing more iron than the rest of the world together. Britain had become powerful because it had enough coal, iron and steel for its own industry and could even export them to Europe. Having coal, iron and steel, it could produce new heavy industrial goods like ships and steam engines. It could also make machinery which produced English traditional goods — woolen and cotton cloth in the factories of Lancashire. Britain's cloth was cheap and was exported to India, to other colonies and to the Middle East. Britain had the largest fleet in the world. The railway. The pride of Britain and a great example of its industrial power was its railway system. The first trains were goods trains, which quickly became very popular because they made transporting goods faster and cheaper. The network of railway tracks was quickly growing and by 1840 their total length was 2,400 miles. Railways connected not only the industrial towns with London, but also economically unimportant towns. The canals were soon empty, because everything went by railway. The speed of the railway even made it possible to deliver fresh fish and raspberries from Scotland to London in one night.
In 1851 the railway companies provided passenger train service. Passenger trains stopped at all stations. Now people could move from place to place much more quickly and easily. With the introduction of the railway system many people began to live in suburbs, from which they traveled into the city every day by train. The suburb was a copy of a country village with all the advantages of a town.
CHANGES IN THE LIFE OF PEOPLE
Like many modern developed countries, the United Kingdom has a mixed economy. This means that some sectors of the economy are operated by the government and some are operated by private businesses. Since World War II (1939-1945), Britain has worked to balance the mix of private and public enterprises in order to maximize the country’s economy and ensure the economic well-being of its citizens. Historically, Britain’s Conservative Party has sought a stronger private component in the mix while the Labour Party has sought to strengthen the public component. Both parties are committed to a healthy mix of both elements, however. After World War II the government nationalized, or took over, a number of large and troubled industries. These included coal, electricity, transport, gas, oil, steel, certain car and truck manufacturing, shipbuilding, and aircraft building. Since the 1950s, the government has privatized a number of these industries, selling them to private firms. The first sales were the steel and road transportation industries. The Conservative governments between 1979 and 1996 denationalized oil companies, telecommunications, car and truck production, gas, airlines and aircraft building, electricity, water, railways, and nuclear power. By privatizing these industries, the government hoped they would become more efficient, due to pressure by stockholders demanding profits. Nevertheless, the government continues to regulate these newly privatized industries by controlling prices and monitoring performance. The government also seeks to encourage competition in the economy and increase productivity by sponsoring and subsidizing training and educational programs.
Britain was once covered with thick forests, but over the centuries the expanding human population steadily deforested nearly the entire country, felling trees for fuel and building materials. Despite the fact that trees grow quickly in the cool, moist climate of the United Kingdom, only remnants of the great oak forests remained at the end of the 20th century.
At one time the fishing industry not only provided a cheap source of protein for Britons, but it was also the training ground for the Royal Navy. Today fishing is a less vital economic activity, although the industry provides about 54 percent of Britain’s fish supplies and involves both deep-sea fishing and fish farming. Fish and fish products are both imported into and exported from Britain. Substantial amounts of fish oils and fish meals are imported, along with saltwater fish and shellfish. Exports are significantly less than imports. Sea-ports play a great role in the life of the country. London, Liverpool and Glasgow are the biggest English ports, from which big liners go to all parts of the world. GB exports industrial products to other countries and imports food and some other products.
Of great importance for Britain is ship-building industry. It is concentrated in London, Liverpool and Belfast. In recent decades over fishing and conservation restrictions imposed by the European Union have caused a decline in the deep-sea industry. Fishing remains an important source of employment in many ports in Scotland and southwestern England. Angling, or sport fishing, is one of the more popular hobbies in Britain.
Mining has been enormously important in British economic history. Salt mining dates from prehistoric times, and in ancient times traders from the Mediterranean shipped tin from the mines of Cornwall. These tin mines are almost completely exhausted today, and the last tin mine in Britain closed in March 1998. Britain’s abundant coal resources were critical during the Industrial Revolution, especially because the coal was sometimes conveniently located near iron and could be used in the iron and steel manufacturing processes. These mined resources were so important to the Industrial Revolution that entire populations moved to work at coal and iron sites in the north and Midlands of England. Today the iron is almost exhausted, and even though most good-quality coal seams are depleted, coal is still the third most mined mineral in Britain. Besides coal, raw materials for construction form the bulk of mineral production, including limestone, dolomite, sand, gravel, sandstone, common clay, and shale. Some china clay and salt are also extracted. Small amounts of zinc, lead, tin, silver, and gold are mined.
Coal and iron mining developed as Britain’s dwindling forests created the need for another energy source, and new smelting techniques made iron implements cheaper to produce. An agricultural revolution in the 18th century introduced new crops and crop rotation techniques, better breeding methods, and mechanical devices for cultivation. This coincided with a rapid increase in population, in part due to better hygiene and diets, providing both consumers and workers for the new manufacturing operations. During the Industrial Revolution new methods of manufacturing products were developed. Instead of being made by hand, many products were made by machine. Production moved from small craft shops to factories, and population shifted to urban areas where these factories were located. Cotton textile factories using newly developed steam-powered machines produced more goods at a lower cost per item. Textiles, shipbuilding, iron, and steel emerged as important industries, and coal remained the most important industrial fuel. The Industrial Revolution dramatically raised the overall standard of living. Scotland is also a major producer of computers. The so-called Silicon Glen between Glasgow and Edinburgh employs about 40,000 people in the electronics industry and is the site of many overseas computer firms. Scotland and Northern Ireland are still noted for their production of whiskey and textiles, especially linen from Northern Ireland and tweed from Scotland. Britain remains an important manufacturing country, although it imports large quantities of manufactured goods from overseas, particularly vehicles and electronic equipment. The leading traditional manufacturing regions of England are Greater London and the cities and regions around Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, and Newcastle upon Tyne. Banking and financial services have always played an important part in London’s economy, and levels of specialization and expertise have been high.
Britain has more energy resources than any other country in the European Union, mostly in the form of oil and natural gas. Other energy sources include coal and nuclear power. Scotland has some hydroelectric power stations. Some alternative energy sources, notably wind farms, are being developed in various parts of Britain. In 1996 about 3.5 percent of industrial employees were involved in energy production, and the energy sector accounted for 5 percent of the GDP. Oil was discovered in the North Sea in 1969. By the 1980s it was adding significantly to the British economy as oil exports increased during a period of high oil prices. British taxpayers also benefited from the taxes and royalties paid by the oil and gas companies, which are licensed by the Crown to search for and produce oil and gas. In 1997 Britain had more than 80 offshore oil fields. The country also owns some onshore wells, but these are far less productive. Gas has been used since the 19th century in London and other places, but it was manufactured from coal. Since the 1960s, when offshore gas fields were discovered, natural gas has been used. In 1996 natural gas accounted for about 25 percent of the fuel consumption in Britain. In 1997 Britain owned 77 offshore fields producing natural gas. In 1996 about 360,000 people worked in the oil and gas industry, both offshore and in related business sectors. Coal was Britain’s traditional source of energy for about 300 years. It was the main source of fuel during the Industrial Revolution, when it was mined, used, and exported in large quantities. Peak production occurred in 1913, when more than 300 million tons were mined. Coal has become far less important to the British economy. Several factors led to the closing of many British mines, particularly mines located in Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, and southern Wales. The most lucrative coal seams eventually became exhausted. Cheaper overseas producers, particularly Poland, South Africa, and Australia, made it less costly to import coal than to mine it Growing concerns about environmental pollution from burning coal have also played a part in decreasing demand.
Control questions:
1.What became the most important of England's products in the 16th century?
2. What did other countries buy from Britain in the middle of the 18th century?
3. What exhibition was opened in the Crystal Palace in 1851?
4. What was the aim of the exhibition?
5. Why had Britain become powerful?
6. What industry is mostly developed in GB?
4 - Lecture. Theme: Political System.
Plan: 1. British Constitution.
2. Three Branches of Government.
3. The British Parliament and the Electoral System.
4. Political parties.
The aim of the lecture: To get acquainted with British Constitution and three Branches of Government; The British Parliament and the Electoral System. Cabinet of Ministers; Political parties.
Key words:
the Established Church of England – Господствующая церковь Англии
Magna Carta ['mægnә'kаtә] – Магна карта( Великая хартия вольностей)
King John [dзɔn] –Король Джон (Иоанн Безземельный)
Habeas Corpus Act ['hеibjәs'kɔ:pәs ækt] - Xaбeac Kopnyc
(закон 1679 г.о неприкосновенности личности)
court of justice ['kɔ:t әv'dзʌstіs] - cyд
the jury ['dзuәrі] – присяжные заседатели
The Bill of Rights – Билль о правах
legislative ['ledзіslәtіv] - законодательная
executive [іg'zеkjutіv] -исполнительная
judicial [dзu'dі∫әl] –судебная
the House of Lords –Палата лордов
the House of Commons – Палата общин
King Edward I ['еdwәd] – король Эдуард І
peers [pіәz] - пэры
lords spiritual [spі'ritjuәl] – высшее духовенство
the Archbishop [а:t∫'bі∫әp] of Canterbury ['kæntәbәrі] - архиепископ Кентерберийский
during their lifetime-пожизненно
transmit [trænz'mɪt] their right-передавать своё право
a leading civil [sɪvɪl] servant-ведущий государственный служащий
hereditary[hɪˈredɪtәrɪ] nobility-наследственная знать
by a general election – всеобщим голосованием
constituencies [kәn'stitjuәnsrz] –избирательные округа
a bill -законапроект
royal assent [ә'sеnt] – королевское одобрение
the Supreme [sju:'pri:m] Court [kɔːt] of Judicature ['dзu:dikә t∫ә]-Верховный суд
the High Court of Justice ['dзʌstis]- Высокий суд (суд первой инстанции по гражданским делам с юрисдикцией на территории всей Великобритании)
the Court of Appeal [ә'pi:l]-апелляционный суд
arbitrary [ɑːbɪtrərɪ] action - произвольные действия
the Conservative [kәn'sә:vәtrv] Party – Консервативная партия
the Labour ['lеibә] Party – Лейбористская партия
Tory ['tɔ:ri] – Topи
The content of the lecture: POLITICAL SYSTEM
The United Kingdom is a parliamentary monarchy. This means that it has a monarch (a king or a queen) as its Head of State. The monarch reigns with the support of parliament. The powers of the monarch are not defined precisely. Everything today is done in the Queen's name. It is her government, her armed forces, her law courts and so on. She appoints all the Ministers, including the Prime Minister. Everything is done however, on the advice of the elected Government, and the monarch takes no part in the decision making process.
Once the British Empire included a huge number of countries all over the world ruled by Britain. The process of decolonization began in 1947 with the independence of India, Pakistan and Ceylon. Now, apart from Hong Kong and a few small islands, there is no longer an empire. But the British ruling classes tried not to lose influence over the former colonies of the British Empire. An association of former members of the British Empire and Britain was founded in 1949. It is called the Commonwealth. It includes many countries such as Ireland, Burma, the Sudan, Canada, Australia New Zealand and others. The Queen of Great Britain is also the Head of the Commonwealth, and so the Queen of Canada, Australia, New Zealand.
The Queen is very rich as are other members of the royal family. In addition, the government pays for her expenses as Head of State, for a royal yacht, train and aircraft as well as for the upkeep of several palaces. The Queen's image appears on stamps, notes and coins.
Parliament consists of two chambers known as the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Parliament and the monarch have different roles in the government of the country and they only meet together on symbolic occasions such as the coronation of a new monarch or the opening of Parliament. In reality, the House of Commons is the only one of the three which has true power. It is here that new bills are introduced and debated. If the majority of the members are in favour of a bill it goes to the House of Lords to be debated and finally to the monarch to be signed. Only then it becomes law. Although a bill must be supported by all three bodies, the House of Lords only has limited powers, and the monarch, has not refused to sign one since the modern political system began over 200 years ago.
BRITISH CONSTITUTION
Practically saying there is no written constitution in GB. The term “English Constitution” means the leading principles, conventions and laws, many of which have been existing for centuries, though they have undergone modifications and extensions in agreement with the advance of civilization. These principles are expressed in such documents of major importance as Magna Carta, a famous document in English history agreed upon in 1215 by King John and the barons, which set certain limits on royal power and which was later regarded as a law stating basic civil rights; Habeas Corpus Act,a law passed in 1679, which guarantees to a person arrested the right to appear in court of justice so that the jury should decide whether he is guilty or not guilty; The Bill of Rights, an act of Parlament passed in 1689, which confirmed certain rights of the people ; the law deciding the succession of the royal family, and a number of constitutional acts, separate laws and agreements.
THREE BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT
Power in GB is divided among three branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch and the judicial branch. The legislative branch is represented by Parliament, which consists of two chambers, or houses; the House of Lords and the House of Commons
Тhе House of Lords. The other House of Parliament is the House of Lords. The House of Lords has more than 1,000 members, although only about 250 take an active part in the work of the House. This House consists of those lords who sit by right of inheritance and those men and women who have been given life peerages which end with the life of their possessors. Members of this Upper House are not elected. They sit there because of their rank. The chairman of the House of Lords is the Lord Chancellor and he sits on a special seat called the Woolsack.
The members of the House of Lords debate a bill after it has been passed by the House of Commons. Changes may be recommended, and agreement between the two Houses is reached by negotiations. The Lords' main power consists of being able to delay non-financial bills for a period of a year, but they can also introduce certain types of bill. The House of Lords is the only non-elected second chamber in the parliaments of the world, and some people in Britain would like to abolish it.
The division of Parliament into two Houses goes back over some 700 years when a feudal assembly assisted the King. In modern times, real political power rests with the elected House although members of the House of Lords may occupy important cabinet posts.
The House of Commons. The House of Commons is made up of 650 elected members, known as Members of Parliament (MPs). The House of Commons is presided over by the Speaker, a member acceptable to the whole House, MPs sit on two sides of the hall, one side for the governing party and other for the opposition. The first two rows of seats occupied by the leading members of both parties (called 'front-benchers’), the back-benchers belong to the rank-and-file MPs ('back-benchers'). Each session of the House of Commons lasts for 160—175 days. Parliament has intervals during its work. MPs are paid for their parliamentary work and have to attend the sittings. MPs have to catch Speaker's eye when they want to speak, then they rise from where they have been sitting to address the House and must do so without either reading a prepared speech or consulting notes.
Although there is some space given to other government proposals, the lion's share of parliamentary time is taken by the party in power. A proposed law, a bill, has to go through three stages in order to become an Act of Parliament. These are саlled readings. The first reading is a formality and is simply the publication of the proposal. The second reading involves debate on the principles of the bill, its examination by a parliamentary committee, and the third reading - a report stage, when the work of the committee is reported on to the Ноusе. This is usually the most important stage in the process. The third reading is often a formality too; if six members table a motion, then there has to be a debate on the third reading. If the majority of MPs still vote for the bill, it is sent to the House of Lords for discussion. When the Lords agree, the bill is taken to the Queen for Royal assent. All bills must pass through both houses before being sent for signature by the Queen, when they become Acts of Parliament - the Law of the Land.
The executive branch is headed by the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the king (queen). According to tradition, the Prime Minister is the leader of the party that won the elections and has the majority in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister appoints the ministers to compose the government. After that the newly appointed ministers are presented to the monarch for the formal approval. The most important ministers of the government form the Cabinet. Members of the Cabinet make joint decisions or advise the Prime Minister.
The main function of the executive branch of the government is to administer the laws (to see to it that the laws are carried out).
The judicial branch interprets the laws. The highest judicial bode is the Supreme Court of Judicature, which consists of two divisions: the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal. It is often said that English law is superior to the law of most other countries. Indeed, the English judicial system contains many rules which protect the individual against arbitrary action by the police and the government.
THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT AND THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
The British Paliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons and the Queen as its head.
The House of Commons play the major role in lawmaking. It consists of Members of Parliament (called MPs for short), each.of whom represents an area in Ensland, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. MPs are elected either at a general election, or at a by-election following the death or retirement of an MP.
Parliamentary elections must be held every fîve years, but the Prime Minister can decide on the exact date within those fîve years. The minimum voting age is 18, and the voting is taken by secret ballot.
The election campaign lasts about three weeks. The election is decided on a simple majority - the candidate with most votes wins. An MP who wins by a small number of votes may have more votes against him (that is, for the other candidates) than for him. Many people think that it is unfair because the wishes of those who voted for the unsuccessuful candidates are not represented at all. The British parliamentary system depends on political parties. The political parties choose candidates in elections. The party which wins the majority of seats forms the Government and its leader usually becomes Prime Minister. The Prime Minister chooses about 20 MPs from his or her party to become the Cabinet of Ministers. Each minister is responsible for a particular area of the government. The second largest party becomes the official opposition with its own leader and 'Shadow cabinet'. Leader of the Opposition is a recognized post in the House of Commons.
POLITICAL PARTIES
Political parties first emerged in Britain at the end of the 17th century. The Conservative and Liberal Parties are the oldest and until the end of the 19th century they were the only parties elected to the House of Commons. The main British political groupings are the Conservative and Labour Parties and the Party of Liberal Democrats. The Conservative Party is the present ruling party, the Labour Party – the opposition to the Conservative - and the party of Liberal Democrats is called 'conservatively oriented’. The Social Democratic Party was formed in 1981 and made an alliance with the Liberal Party in 1988.
There are also some other parties: the Scottish National and Welsh Nationalist Parties, the Communist Party of Britain,
Because of the electoral method in use, only two major parties obtain seats in the House of Commons. People belonging to smaller political parties join one of the larger parties and work from within to make their influence felt. The exception to this are members of the Scottish National and Welsh Nationalist Parties, who, because their votes are concentrated in specific geographical areas, can manage win seats although their total support is relatively small.
The Conservative Party. The Conservative Party, often .called the Tory Party, one of those which can trace its roots back to this period. Today the Tory Party is that of big business, industry, commerce and landowners. Most of the money needed to run the party comes from large firms and companies. The party represents those who believe in private enterprise as opposed to state-owned undertakings. There is some division within the party itself: the more aristocratic wing and the lower-middle-class group. The Tories are а mixture of the rich and privileged-the monopolists and landowners. Conservative Party is the most powerful and is often called a party of business directors.
The word ‘tory’ means an Irish highwayman and was applied to the conservatives by their opponents but later adopted the name to describe themselves. The Tories opposed the ideas of the French Revolution, Parliamentary Reform and the development of Trade Unionism. They represent colonial policy. In home policy they opposed the tendencies of the Labour Party to nationalize gas, electricity, coal and railways. Today the Conservative Party can broadly be described as the party of the middle and upper classes.
The Liberal Party and the Labour Party. The Conservative Party and the Liberal Party are more than three hundred years оld. The Tories called the Liberals 'Whigs'. A ‘Whig’ was a Scottish preacher who could go on for 4 or 5 hours at a time preaching moralizing sermons. In the middle of the 19th century the Liberal Party represented the trading and manufacturing classes. Its slogan at that time was 'Civil and Religious Liberty’. William Gladstone headed the first administration (1868—74) and for long periods the Liberals had a Parliamentary majority. During the second half of the 19th century many working people looked at the Liberal Party as an alternative to the Conservatives and their policy.
At the end of the 19th century and in the first two decades of this; the Liberals lost the support of working-class voters. In 1988 the Liberal Party made an alliance with Social Democrats and the Party of Liberal Democrats was formed.
The Labour Party, formed in 1900, was the one which drew away working people's support. It was founded by the Trades Unions. When the Labour Government was first elected in 1945 it showed a considerable change in policy from the Tories.
Since 1924 the Labour Party has been in and out of power four times with the Conservatives forming the government for the rest of the time. The social system has remained unchanged. As a result of divisions within the Labour Party its right-wing members broke away in 1981 to form a new organization, the Social Democratic Party. The later fought the 1983 election in an alliance with the Liberals, but only a small number of their M Ps were elected. They would like to change the electoral system because they think the present system unfair.
Control questions:
1 Is there a written constitution in GB? What does the term “English Constitution” mean?
2 Which are the three branches of state power in the UK?
3 How are the members of the House of Lords and the House of Commons elected?
4 Which are the two main political parties in GB?
5- Lecture. Theme: The System of Education in the UK
Plan:1 Schooling in Britain, its running and financing. Primary education.
2 Secondary Education
3 Higher Education
The aim of the lecture: To get acquainted with the System of Education in the UK, its running and financing; primary education; secondary schools; universities and colleges.
Key words:
authority - власть
maintained schools -
fee - плата за обучение
grammar schools – средняя школа с гуманитарным уклоном
comprehensive schools – единая средняя школа
curriculum – учебный план
careers advisor – консультант по профессиональной ориентации
abolition -отмена
berets – [berei]- берет
truancy- прогулка
caning- (punishment) наказание палкой
The content of the lecture: EDUCATION
Great Britain does not have a written constitution, so there are no constitutional provisions for education. The system of education is determined by the National Education Acts. Schools in England are supported from public funds paid to the local education authorities. These local education authorities are responsible for organizing the schools in their areas. Let's outline the basic features of public education in Britain. Firstly, there are wide variations between one part of the country and another. For most educational purposes England and Wales are treated as one unit, though the system in Wales is a little different from that of England. Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own education systems. Secondly, education in Britain mirrors the country’s social system: it is class-divided and selective. The first division is between those who pay and those who do not pay. The majority of schools in Britain are supported by public funds and the education provided is free. They are maintained schools, but there is also a considerable number of public schools. Parents have to pay fees to send their children to these schools. The fees are high. As a matter of fact, only very rich families can send their children to public schools. In some parts of Britain they still keep the old system of grammar schools, which are selective. But most secondary schools in Britain which are called comprehensive schools are not selective - you don't have to pass an exam to go there. Another important feature of schooling in Britain is the variety of opportunities offered to schoolchildren. The English school syllabus is divided into Arts (or Humanities) and Sciences, which determine the division of the secondary school pupils into study groups: a Science pupil will study Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics (Maths), Economics, Technical Drawing, Biology, Geography; an Art pupil will do English Language and Literature, History, foreign languages, Music, Art, Drama. Besides these subjects they must do some general education subjects like Physical Education (PE), Home Economics for girls, and Technical subjects for boys, General Science. Computers play an important part in education. The system of options exists in all kinds of secondary schools. The National Education Act of 1944 provided stages of education: primary, secondary and further education. Compulsory schooling in England and Wales lasts 11 years, from the age of 5 to 16. British schools usually have prayers and religious instruction. The National Curriculum which was introduced in 1988 sets out in detail the subjects that children should study and the levels of achievement they should reach by the ages of 7, 11, and 16, when they are tested. Until that year headmasters and headmistresses of schools were given a great deal of freedom in deciding what subjects to teach and how to do it in their schools so that there was really no central, control at all over individual schools. The National Curriculum does not apply in Scotland, where each school decides what subjects it will teach. After the age of 16 a growing number of school student are staying on at school, some until 18 or 19, the age of entry into higher education in universities, Polytechnics or colleges. Schools in Britain provide careers guidance. A specially trained person called careers advisor, or career officer helps school students to decide what job they want to do and how they can achieve it. British university courses are rather short, generally lasting for 3 years. The cost of education depends on the college or university and specialty which one chooses.
Primary. In some areas of England there are nursery schools for children under 5 years of age. Some children between two and five receive education in nursery classes or infants’ classes in primary schools. Many children attend informal pre -school play-groups organized by parents, in private homes. Nursery schools are staffed with teachers and students in training. There are all kinds of toys to keep the children busy from 9 o'clock in the morning till 4 o'clock in the afternoon – while their parents are at work. Here the babies play, lunch and sleep. They run about and play in safety with someone keeping an eye on them. For day nurseries which remain open all the year round the parents pay according to their income. The local education authority's nurseries are free. But only about three children in 100 can go to them: there aren't enough places, and the waiting lists are rather long. Most children start school at 5 in a primary school. A primary school may be divided into two parts - infants and juniors. At infants school reading, writing and arithmetic are taught for about 20 minutes a day during the first year, gradually increasing to about 2 hours in their last year. There is usually no written timetable. Much time is spent in modeling from clay or drawing, reading or singing. By the time children are ready for the junior school, they will be able to read and write, do simple addition and subtraction of numbers. At 7 children go on from the infants’ school to the junior school. This marks the transition from play to 'real work. The children have set periods of arithmetic, reading and composition which are all Eleven Plus subjects. History, Geography, Nature Study, Art and Music, Physical Education, Swimming are also on the timetable. Pupils are streamed, according to their ability to learn, into А, В, С and D streams. The least gifted are in the D stream. Formerly towards the end of their fourth year the pupils wrote their Eleven Plus Examination. The hated 11+ examination was a selective procedure on which not only the pupils’ future schooling but their future careers depended. The abolition of selection at Eleven Plus Examination brought to life comprehensive schools where pupils can get secondary education.
SECONDARY EDUCATION
After the age of 11, most children go to comprehensive schools of which the majority are for both boys and girls. About 90 per cent of all state-financed secondary schools are of this type. Most other children receive secondary education in grammar and secondary modern schools. Comprehensive schools were introduced in 1965. The idea of comprehensive education, supported by the Labour Party, was to give all children of whatever background the same opportunity in education.
At 16 students in England and Wales take GCSE examinations. In 1988 these examinations replaced the GCE and O-levels which were usually passed by about 20 per cent of school students. GCSE examinations are taken by students of all levels of ability in any of a range of subjects, and may involve a final examination, and assessment of work done by the student during the two-year course, or both of these things. Some comprehensive schools, however, do not have enough academic courses for sixth-formers. Students can transfer either to a grammar school or to a sixth-form college to get the courses they want. At 18 some students take A-level GCE examinations, usually in two or three subjects. It is necessary to have A-levels in order to go to a university or Polytechnic. But some pupils want to stay on at school after taking their GCSE, to prepare for a vocational course or for work rather than for A-level examinations. Then they have to take the CPVE examination which means the Certificate of Pre- Vocational Education. In Scotland students take the SCE examinations. A year later, they can take examinations called Highers after which they can go straight to a university. Secondary education in Northern Ireland is organized along selective lines according to children's abilities. One can hardly say that high quality secondary education is provided for all in Britain. There is a high loss of pupils from working-class families at entry into the sixth form. If you are a working-class child at school today, the chance of your reaching the second year of a sixth-form course is probably less than that for the child of a professional parent. Besides, government cuts on school spending caused many difficulties.
The school year is divided into terms, three months each, named after seasons: autumn term, winter term and spring term. The autumn term starts on the first Tuesday morning in September. In July schools break up for eight weeks. Life at school is more or less similar everywhere. Each group of 30 pupils is the responsibility of a form tutor. Each schoolday is divided into periods of 40 - 50 minutes, time for various lessons with 10 - 20 minutes breaks’ between them. On important occasions such as end of term or national holiday, called in English schools speech-days pupils are gathered in the assembly area or hall. Most of the pupils' time is spent in a classroom equipped with desks and a blackboard, nowadays often called chalkboard because normally it is brown or green. The desks are arranged in rows, the space between the rows is called an aisle. In addition to classrooms there are laboratories for Physics, Chemistry and Biology. Technical rooms are for Woodwork, Metalwork, and Technical Drawing. There are rooms for computer studies. Many young people use them for school exercise. They are now able to write their own games as well. The Physical Education lessons are conducted at the gymnasium, games-hall or at the playground in front of the school building. There are also language laboratories and housecraft rooms. Every school has a library and a school canteen. The Staff common room is for teachers. In case of illness a schoolchild may go to the sick room. Pupils at many secondary schools in Britain have to wear a school uniform. This usually means a white blouse for girls (perhaps with a tie), with a dark-coloured skirt and pullover. Boys wear a shirt and tie, dark trousers and dark-coloured pullovers. Pupils also wear blazers - a kind of jacket – with the school badge on the pocket. They often have to wear some kind of hat on the way to and from school - caps for boys, and berets or some other kind of hat for girls. Shoes are usually black or brown. And no high heels! Young people in Britain often don't like their school uniform, especially the hats and shoes. Sometimes they do not wear the right clothes. Schools will often give them warning the first time that this happens but then will punish them if they continue not to wear the correct uniform. Senior student don't have to wear their school uniform. It sounds logical to say that the school's function is to train a pupil's mind and his character should be formed at home. Teachers would be pleased if the problem could be solved so easily. But children don't leave their characters at home when their minds go to school. Many of them have personality problems of one kind or another. The pupils who violate various school regulations may be punished in the following ways: for lateness, truancy they may be reported to the Headmaster or named in school after assembly. They may be detained in school after ordinary hours. Corporal punishment has recently been banned in state schools. But in most public schools it is still allowed. Caning is the usual punishment for serious misbehavior in class, damage and vandalism. Many teachers remark that standards of discipline have fallen since corporal punishment was banned by the government. You may want to know whether there are any rewards and prizes for the best pupils. Of course, there are. Each school has its system of rewards: medals and prizes.
HIGHER EDUCATION
The academic year in Britain's universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Education is divided, into three terms, which usually ran from the beginning of October to the middle of December, from the middle of January to the end of March, and from the middle of April to the end of June or the beginning of July. There are about one hundred universities in Britain. The oldest and best-known universities are located in Oxford, Cambridge, London, Leeds, Manchester, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Southampton, Cardiff, Bristol, and Birmingham. Good A-level results in at toast two subjects an necessary to get a place at a university. However, good exam passes alone are not enough. Universities choose their students after interviews. For all British citizens a place at a university brings with it a grant from their local education authority. English universities greatly differ from each other. They differ in date of foundation, size, history, tradition, general organization, methods of instruction, and way of student life. After three years of study a university graduate will leave with the Degree of Bachelor of .Acts, Science, Engineering, Medicine, etc. Later he may continue to take a Master's Degree and then a Doctor's Degree. Research is an important feature of university work.
The two intellectual eyes of Britain—Oxford and Cambridge Universities - date from, the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Scottish universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh date from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries the so-called Redbrick universities were founded. These include London, Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, Sheffield and Birmingham- During the late sixties and early seventies sonic" 20 ‘new’ universities were set up. Sometimes they are called 'concrete and glass' universities. Among them are the universities of Sussex, York, East Anglia and some others. During these years the Government set up thirty Polytechnics. The Polytechnics, like the universities, offer first and higher degrees. Some of them offer full-time and sandwich courses. Colleges of Education provide two-year courses in teacher education or sometimes three years if the graduate specializes in some particular subject. Some of those who decide to leave school at the age of 16 may go to a further education college where they can follow a course in typing, engineering, town planning, cooking, or hairdressing, full-time or part-time. Further education colleges have strong ties with commerce and industry. There is an interesting form of studies which is called the Open University. It is intended for people who study, in their own free time and who 'attend' lectures by watching television and listening to the radio. They keep in touch by phone and letter with their tutors and attend summer schools. The Open University students have no formal qualifications and would be unable to enter ordinary universities.
Oxbridge. Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest and most prestigious universities in Great Britain. They are often called collectively Oxbridge. Both universities are independent. Only the education elite go to Oxford or Cambridge. Most of their students are former public schools leavers. The normal length of the degree course is three years, after which the students take the Degree of Bachelor of Arts (B.A.). Oxford and Cambridge cling to their traditions, such as .the use of Latte at decree ceremonies. Full academic degrees worn at examinations. Oxford and Cambridge universities consist of a number of colleges. Each college is different, but in many ways they are alike. Each college has its name, its coat of arms. Each college is governed by a Master. The larger ones have flow than 400 members; the smallest colleges have less then 30. Each college offers teaching in a wide range of subjects. Within the college one will normally find a chapel a dining hall, a library, rooms for undergraduates, fellows and the Master, and. also room for teaching purposes. Oxford is one of the oldest universities in Europe. It is the second largest in Britain, after London. The town of Oxford is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 911 A.D. and it was popular with the early English kings (Richard Coeur de Lion was probably here). The university's earliest charter is dated to 1213. There are now twenty four colleges for men, five for women and another five which have both men and women members, many from overseas studying for higher degrees. Cambridge University started during the 13th century and grew until today. Now there are more than thirty colleges. The most famous is probably King's College because of its magnificent chapel, the largest and the most beautiful building in Cambridge and the most perfect example left of English fifteenth-century architecture. Its choir of boys and undergraduates is also very well known. The University was only for men until 1871, when the first women's college was opened. In the 1970s, most colleges opened their doors to both men and women. Almost all colleges are now mixed. The universities have over a hundred societies and clubs, enough for every interest one could imagine. Sport is part of students' life at Oxbridge. The most popular sports are rowing and punting.
Speak about:
Stages of education in the educational system of the UK.
Different Types of schools in Britain
The system of examinations used in schools
University education in the UK.
6- Lecture. Theme: How they live (culture, leisure and holidays)
Plan: 1. Holidays and Traditions
2. Mass media.
3. Sports and leisure
4. Religion
The aim of the lecture: To get acquainted with the way of life, with the holidays, customs, museums and art galleries in Britain.
Key words:
holly – остролист
to blow up - взрывать
straw - солома
quality newspapers – «солидные» газеты
popular newspapers – желтая пресса
broadcasting – радиовещание, трансляция
advertisement – реклама, объявление
soccer - футбол
annually – ежегодно
The content of the lecture: HOLIDAYS AND CUSTOMS
New Year |
January, 1 |
Christmas |
December,25 |
ST. Valentine’s Day |
February 14th |
Pancake Day |
February |
Mothers’ Day |
March |
Easter |
April |
April Fools’ Day |
April, 1 |
May Spring Festival |
May, 1 |
Late Summer Bank Holiday |
August / September |
Hallowe’en |
October, 31 |
Guy Fawkes’ Night (Bonfire Night) |
November, 5 |
Remembrance Day |
November, 11 |
Boxing Day |
December, 26 |
New Year is not such an important holiday in England as Christmas. Some people don’t celebrate it at all. Many people have New Year parties. A party usually begins at about eight o’clock and goes on until early in the morning. At midnight they listen to the chimes of Big Ben, drink a toast to the New Year.
Christmas
If you try to catch a train on 24th of December you may have difficulty in finding a seat. This is the day when many people are traveling home to be with their families on Christmas Day, 25th December. For most British families, this is the most important festival of the year; it combines the Christian celebration of the birth of Christ with the traditional festivities of winter.
Most families decorate their houses with brightly-colored paper or holly, and they usually have a Christmas tree in the corner of the front room, glittering with colored lights and decorations.
There are a lot of traditions connected with Christmas but perhaps the most important one is the giving of presents. Family members wrap up their gifts and leave them at the bottom of the Christmas tree to be found on Christmas morning. Children leave a long sock or stocking at the end of their beds on Christmas Eve, 24th December, hoping that Father Christmas5 will come down the chimney during the night and bring them small presents, fruit and nuts. They are usually not disappointed! At some time on Christmas Day the family will sit down to a big turkey dinner followed by Christmas pudding. They will probably pull a cracker with another member of the family. It will make a loud crack and a coloured hat, small toy and joke will fall out!
Later in the afternoon they may watch the Queen on television as she delivers her traditional Christmas message to the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth. If they have room for even more food they may enjoy a piece of Christmas cake or eat a hot mince pie. 26th December is also a public holiday, Boxing Day, and this is the time to visit friends and relatives or watch football.
ST. Valentine’s Day is considered a friend and patron of lovers. For centuries St. Valentine’s Day, February 14th, has been a day for choosing sweethearts and exchanging Valentine cards.
Ghosts and Witches Halloween means 'holy evening', and takes place, on 31st October. Although it is a much more important festival in the United States than Britain, it is celebrated by many people in the UK. It is particularly connected with witches and ghosts.
At parties people dress up in strange costumes and pretend they are witches. They cut horrible faces in potatoes and other vegetables and put a candle inside, which shines through the eyes. People may play difficult games such as trying to eat an apple from a bucket of water without using their hands.
In recent years children dressed in white sheets knock on doors at Halloween and ask if you would like a 'trick' or a 'treat'. If you give them something nice, a 'treat', they go away. However, if you don't, they play a 'trick' on you, such as making a lot of noise or spilling flour on your front doorstep!
Guy Fawkes' Night. In 1605 King James I was on the throne. As a Protestant, he was very unpopular with Roman Catholics. Some of them planned to blow up the Houses of Parliament on 5th November of that year, when the King was going to open Parliament. Under the House of Lords they stored thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, which were to be exploded by a man called Guy Fawkes. However, one of the plotters spoke about these plans and Fawkes was discovered, arrested and later hanged. Since that day the English traditionally celebrate 5th November by burning a dummy, made of straw and old clothes, on a bonfire, at the same time letting off fireworks. This dummy is called a 'guy' (like Guy Fawkes) and children can often be seen on the pavements before 5th November saying, 'Penny for the guy'. If they collect enough money they can buy some fireworks.
MASS MEDIA
Newspapers. In Britain there are 11 national daily newspapers most people read one of them every day. Daily newspapers are published on every day of the week except Sunday. Sunday newspapers are larger than daily newspapers. All the Sunday newspapers are national. Most national newspapers in Britain express a political opinion, most of them right-wing, and people choose the newspaper that they read according to their own political beliefs.
Fleet Street in London used to be the home of most national daily and Sunday newspapers and that is why people often say 'Fleet Street' to mean 'the press’ even now.
British newspapers can be divided into two groups: quality and popular. Quality newspapers are more serious and cover home and foreign news while popular newspapers like shocking, personal stories. These two groups of papers can be distinguished easily because the quality newspapers are twice the size of the popular newspapers. The quality daily papers are 'The Times', 'The Guardian', 'Daily Telegraph' and 'The Financial Times'. 'The Times', founded in 1785, is considered to be the most authoritative newspaper voice in the country and is said to be the paper of the Establishment. The ‘Guardian' appeals to well-educated readers interested in intellectual and social affairs. The 'Daily Telegraph’ is bought by educated, upper and middle-class readers. 'The Financial Times', printed on pink papers, is read by businessmen. The 'popular' press consists of the 'Daily Mail’, the 'Daily Express', the 'Daily Star’ and the 'Sun'. In all newspapers there is a desperate fight to maintain or improve their circulations but it is worst among the 'popular’ papers whose main weapons are sex, scandal and sport. Apart from London-based papers, there are many local newspapers. Most of these are evening papers (there is only one London evening paper) and many appear weekly.
Newspapers
Title and foundation date:
National dailies 'Popular' Daily Express (1900) Daily Mail (1896) Daily Minor (1903) Daily Star (1966) The Sun (1964) Today (1986) 'Qualities' Financial Times (1886) The Daily Telegraph (1885) The Guardian (1821) The Independent (1986) The Times (1785) |
National Sundays 'Popular' News of the World (1843) Sunday Express (1918) Sunday Minor (1963) Sunday Sport (1986) The Mail of Sunday (1982) The People (1881) 'Qualities' Sunday Telegraph (1961) The Observer (1791) The Sunday Times (1822) The Sunday Correspondent (1989)
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TV and Radio. Broadcasting in the United Kingdom is controlled by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Independent Television Commission (ITС). The BBC receives its income from the government, but the private companies are controlled by the ITС which replaced in 1991 the IBA.
National radio is controlled by the BBC, and listeners can choose between four stations. Radio 1 is a pop-music station with news and magazine-style programmes. Radio 2 plays light music and reports on sport. Radio 3 plays classical music, and Radio 4 has news programmes, drama and general interest programmes. There are many local stations, some private and some run by the BBC. Their programmes consist mainly of music and local news.
The BBC has two TV channels. BBC 2 has more serious programmes and news features. There is a break for advertisements about every 15—20 minutes. The IBA is responsible for looking after the regional independent TV companies who broadcast their own programmes and those they have bought from other regions. The most recent independent channel is Channel 4, and it has more specialized programmes than the main channels. In general, people think the programmes offered on British television are of a very high standard. Some people, however, are becoming worried about the amount of violence on TV, and the effect this may have on young people.
TV and radio are also two of the main teaching channels used by the Open University. This ‘university of the air’ allows many thousands of students to study at home for degrees they never would have obtained in the main educational system. They also have to do without sleep as most of their programmes are broadcast early in the morning or late at night.
SPORTS AND LEISURE
Football has been called the most popular game in the world, and it certainly has a great many fans in Britain. Association football (or soccer) is the game that is played in nearly all countries. A team is composed of a goalkeeper, two backs, three half-backs and five forwards. There is another game called rugby football, so called because it originated at Rugby, a well-known English public school. In this game the Players may carry the ball. There is also an American kind of football, different from the other two. The captain of the team is usually the oldest or best player.
Cricket. People who live in England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa or the West Indies learn how to play cricket at school. English people love cricket. Summer isn't summer without it. Even if you do not understand the rules, it is attractive to watch the players dressed in white playing on the beautiful green cricket fields. Every Sunday morning from May to the end of September many Englishmen get up very early and take a lot of sandwiches with them. It is necessary because the games are very long. Games between two village teams last for only one afternoon. Games between counties last for three days, with б hours play on each day. When England plays with one or other cricketing countries such as Australia and New Zealand it is called a test match and lasts for five days. Cricket is played in schools, colleges and universities and in most towns and villages by teams which play weekly games. Test matches with other cricketing countries are held annually.
In many ways this is the most English of all sports. It is a game for a hot June day with a slight breeze and the feeling that there is no hurry in the world.
RELIGION
Barely 16 percent of the adult population of Britain belongs to one of the Christain Churches. And this proportion continues to decline. Yet the regional variation is revealing. In England only 12 percent of the adult population is members of a church. The further one travels from London, however the greater the attendance: in Wales 22 percent and in Northern Ireland no fewer than 75 percent.
Today there is complete freedom of practice, regardless of religion or sect. However, until the mid-nineteenth century, those who did not belonged to the Church of England, the official “established” or state church, were barred from some public offices. The established church still plays a powerful role in national life, in spite of the relatively few people who are active members of it.
There are two established or state churches in Britain: the Church of England, or Anglican Church as it is also called, and the Church of Scotland.
As Head of the Church of England, the monarch appoints the archbishops, bishops and deans of the Church, on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, who might well not be an Anglican. The Prime Minister makes a recommendation from two nominee candidates, put forward by a special Crown Appointments Commission (composed by bishops, clergy and lay members of the Church).
The most senior spiritual leaders of the Church of England are the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is “Primate of all England”, and the Archbishop of York, who is “Primate of England”. They are head of the two ecclesiastical provinces of England, Canterbury and York.
Control questions:
1. Social and private life.
2. National traditions and customs of Wales, Scotland and Ireland.
3. Mass media: TV and radio agencies, “serious” and “popular” press.
4. Which are the most popular sports in Britain?
7- Lecture Places to see in Britain
Plan: 1. Architecture
2. Museums and Art Galleries.
3. Stonehenge
4. The Lake District
5. Canterbury
6. Windsor Castle
7. Hampton Court Palace
Key words:
Stonehenge ['stounhend3] - Стоунхедж
Salisbury ['sɔ:lzbәri] - Солсбери
the position of some stones was related to – pacположение некоторых камней имеет связь с
Canterbury ['kæntәbәrі] -Кентербери
Kent [kent] – Keнт
Windsor Castle ['winzә'kа:sl] – Виндзорский замок
St. George's Chapel [snt'd3ɔ:d3rz't∫æpәl] –часовня святого Георга
Hampton Court ['hæmptәn'kɔ:t] – дворец Хэмптон Корт
Cardinal Wolsey ['kа:dіnәl'wulzі] – кардинал Корт
in rather un-Puritan style – в довольно непуританском стиле
Sir Christopher Wren ['kristәfә'ren] –сэр Кристофер Рен водятся приведения
Catherine Howard ['kæӨrіn'hauәd] – Кэтрин Говард
on a charge of infidelity [,infi'deliti] –по обвинению в нeверности
Jane Seymour ['d3ein'si:mɔ:] – Джейн Симур
Anne Boleyn ['æn'bulin] –Анна Болейн
' ramparts ['ræmpa:ts] –крепостные валы cunning- ловкость
mosque - мечеть
fortress -крепость
raven –ворона
eclipse - затмение
The content of the lecture:
ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN
Artistic and cultural life in Britain is rather rich. It passed several main stages in its development. The Saxon King Alfred encouraged the arts and culture. The chief debt owed to him by English literature is for his translations of and commentaries on Latin works. Art, culture and literature flowered during the Elizabethan age, during the reign of Elizabeth I; it was the period of English domination of the oceans. It was at this time that William Shakespeare lived. The empire, which was very powerful under Queen Victoria, saw another cultural and artistic hey-day as a result of industrialization and the expansion of international trade. But German air raids caused much damage in the First World War and then during the Second World War. The madness of the wars briefly interrupted the development of culture.
Immigrants who have arrived from all parts of the Commonwealth since 1945 have not only created a mixture of nations, but have also brought their cultures and habits with them.
Inigo Jones was the first man to bring the Italian Renaissance style to Great Britain. He had studied in Italy for some years, and in 1615 became Surveyor-General of the works.
The style he built in was pure Italian with as few modifications as possible. His buildings were very un-English in character, with regularly spaced columns along the front. His two most revolutionary designs were the Banqueting House in Whitehall and the Queen's House at Greenwich. All those who followed him had to adapt this new foreign building technique to English ways and English climate, English building materials and English craftsmen.
Christopher Wren was the man who did it. He was a mathematician, an astronomer and, above all, an inventor. He invented new ways of using traditional English building materials, brick and ordinary roofing tiles, to keep within the limits of classical design. He, like Inigo Jones, was appointed Surveyor-General to the Crown when he was about thirty years old, and almost immediately he started rebuilding the churches of London, burnt down in the Great Fire of 1666. Wren's churches are chiefly known by their beautiful spires which show in their structure the greatest engineering cunning. But Ch. Wren also influenced the design of houses, both in town and in the country. The best-known buildings designed by Ch. Wren are St. Paul's Cathedral in London and the Sheldonion Theatre in Oxford. The period of the Industrial Revolution had no natural style of its own. Businessmen wanted art for their money. The architect was to provide a facade in the Gothic style, or he was to turn the building into something like a Norman castle, or a Renaissance palace, or even an Oriental mosque. For theatres and opera houses the theatrical Baroque style was often most suitable. Churches were more often than not built in the Gothic style. The twentieth century has seen great changes in Britain's architecture.
MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES
Museums. Three of London's most interesting museums - the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and the Natural History Museum are also in this area. The Natural History Museum has exhibits of birds, animals and reptiles, as well as life-size reconstructions of prehistoric animals. The Victoria and Albert Museum includes exhibits almost every place and period, including costumes from the theatre, and paintings. The Science Museum covers every aspect of science and technology, and its collections are constantly being enlarged. The museum is always crowded. In many of the rooms there are machines and computers which the visitors can work themselves.
It is safe to say that the three most famous buildings in England are the Tower of London, Westminster Abbey and St. Paul's Cathedral.
The Tower of London on the north bank of the Thames is one of the most ancient buildings of London. It was founded in the 11th century by William the Conqueror. But each monarch left some kind of personal mark on it. For many centuries the Tower has been a fortress, a palace, a prison and royal treasury. It is now a museum of arms and amour, and as one of the strongest fortresses in Britain, it has the Crown Jewels. The grey stones of the Tower could tell terrible stories of violence and injustice. Many sad and cruel events took place within the walls of the Tower. It was here that Thomas More, the great humanist, was falsely accused and executed. Among famous prisoners executed at the Tower were Henry VIII's wives Ann Boleyn and Catherine Howard. When Queen Elizabeth was a princess, she was sent to the Tower by Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary) and kept prisoner for some time. The ravens whose forefathers used to find food in the Tower still live here as part of its history. There is a legend that if the ravens disappear the Tower will fall. That is why the birds are carefully guarded. The White Tower was built by William the Conqueror to protect and control the City of London.
Every night at 10 p.m. at the Tower of London the Ceremony of the Keys or locking up of the Tower for the night takes place. It goes back to the Middle Ages. Five minutes before the hour the Headwarder comes out with a bunch of keys and an old lantern. He goes to the guardhouse and cries: 'Escort for the keys'. Then he closes the three gates and goes to the sentry, who calls: 'Halt, who comes there?' The Headwarder replies: 'The Keys'. 'Whose Keys?' demands the sentry. 'Queen Elizabeth's Keys', comes the answer. 'Advance Queen Elizabeth's Keys. All's well'. The keys are finally carried to the Queen's House where they are safe for the night. After the ceremony everyone who approaches the gate must give the password or turn away.
Westminster Abbey is a fine Gothic building, which stands opposite the Houses of Parliament. It is the work of many hands and different ages. The oldest part of the building dates from the eighth century.
The Abbey is sometimes compared with a mausoleum, because there are tombs and memorials of almost all English monarchs, many statesmen, famous scientists, writers and musicians.
If you go past the magnificent tombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold and precious stones, past the gold-and-silver banners of the Order of the Garter, which are hanging from the ceiling, you will come to Poets' Corner. There many of the greatest writers are buried: Geoffrey Chaucer, Samuel Johnson, Charles Dickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy and Rudyard Kipling. Here too, though these writers are not buried in Westminster Abbey, are memorials to William Shakespeare and John Milton, Burns and Byron, Walter Scott, William Makepeace Thackeray and the great American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.
St. Paul’s Cathedral is the work of the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren. It is said to be one of the finest pieces of architecture in Europe. Work on Wren’s masterpiece began in 1675 after a Norman church, old St. Paul’s, was destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666. For 35 years the building of St. Paul’s Cathedral went on, and Wren was an old man before it was finished.
From far away you can see the huge dome with a golden ball and cross on the top. The interior of the cathedral is very beautiful. It is full of monuments. The most important, perhaps, is the one dedicated to the Duke of Wellington. After looking round you can climb 263 steps to the Whispering Gallery, which runs round the dome. It is called so, because if someone whispers close to the wall on one side, a person with his ear close to the wall on the other side can hear what is said. But if you want to reach the foot of the ball, you have to climb 637 steps.
As for Christopher Wren, who is now known as “the architect of London“, he found his fame only after his death. He was buried in the Cathedral. Buried here are Nelson, Wellington and Sir Joshua Reynolds.
British’s Theatres. Britain is now one of the world's major theatre centers. Now Britain has about 300 professional theatres. Some of them are privately owned. The tickets are not hard to get but they are very expensive. Regular seasons of opera and ballet are given at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in London. The National Theatre stages modern and classical plays, the Royal Shakespeare Company produces plays mainly by Shakespeare and his contemporaries when it performs in Stratford-on-Avon, and modern plays in its two auditoria in the City's Barbican Centre. Shakespeare's Globe Playhouse, about which you have probably read, was reconstructed on its original site. Many other cities and large towns have at least one theatre. There are many theatres and theatre companies for young people: the National Youth Theatre and the Young Vic Company in London, the Scottish Youth Theatre in Edinburgh. The National Youth Theatre, which stages classical plays mainly by Shakespeare and modern plays about youth, was on tour in Russian in 1989. The theatre-goers warmly received the production of Thomas Stearns Eliot's play 'Murder in the Cathedral'. Many famous English actors started their careers in the National Youth Theatre. Among them Timothy Dalton, the actor who did the part of Rochester in 'Jane Eyre' shown on TV in our country.
Stonehenge is the great stone monument, the most remarkable of prehistoric in Britain. It has stood on Salisbury Plain for about 4,000 years. No written records exist of its origin, and it has always been surrounded by mystery. There have been many different theories, but still nobody knows why it was built. One theory is that it was a place from where stars and planets could be observed. It was discovered that the position of some stones was related to the movements of the sun and moon, so that the stones could be used as a calendar to predict such things as eclipses.
The Lake District is a mountainous area in the north-west of England, and it has some of England's most beautiful scenery. Some admiring visitors called it " A paradise of mountain scenery and magical light". Picturesque lakes lie in deep hollows dug out by the glacier which covered Britain during the Ice Age'. Green hills, herds of sheep, and solitary farms scattered here and there are typical of this remote and surprisingly beautiful part of England.
The Lake District is a National Park, which means that special care is taken to make sure that the beauty of the countryside is not spoilt.
Canterbury is a town in Kent with a population of about 120,000. It is the religious capital of England because its cathedral is the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury who is head of the Church of England. From the 12th to 15th centuries it was a place of pilgrimage. Thousands of people came to pray at the tomb of a former Archbishop of Canterbury who murdered in the Cathedral in 1170. His name was Thomas Becket
Windsor Castle standing on a rock overlooking the River Thames, was founded by William the Conqueror and was later fortified and enlarged by almost, every monarch since the Norman Conquest. William and his early successors needed to secure
their military position. Nowadays Windsor Castle is a comfortable country place within an hour's drive from the capital, where the Royal family can relax.
Hampton Court Palace is a royal residence which is associated with Henry VIII. Cardinal Wolsey, Henry's friend and adviser, was a brilliant politician and diplomats.
He began building this grand palace in red brick in 1514. In 1526 Wolsey presented the unfinished place to his king, and Henry continued the work until Hampton Court was one of the largest buildings in Europe.
During the Civil War Oliver Cromwell used Hampton Court to hold King Charles I under home arrest. After the king's execution, he lived there himself, in rather un-Puritan style.
Like many English old castles and palaces, Hampton Court is haunted. According to a legend, one of the galleries is haunted by Henry's fifth wife Catherine Howard, who was executed on a charge of infidelity. Another legend says that Jane Seymour, his s third wife, also walks here in the palace where she died giving birth to the future Edward VI. Some legends tell that the ghost of Anne Boleyn, Henry's second wife, who was also executed, sometimes walks along the ramparts of the Bloody Tower. Henry himself, however, rests quietly: his ghost has never been seen by anybody.
Control questions:
Which are some of the most traditional ceremonies that have been preserved since old times?
Which are the three of London’s most interesting museums?
What does the legend say about the building of Stonehenge?
Where is the Lake District situated?
How far from London is Windsor Castle situated?
Why is there a mixture of styles in the architecture of Hampton Court Palace?
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
8- Lecture. Theme: Geographical Survey. Economy.
Plan: 1. Geographical Position
2. Composition of the country
3. Relief and mountains
4. Climate
5. Inland waters
6. Mineral resources and their deposits.
7. Economy
The aim of the lecture: To get acquainted with the geographical position, climate, inland waters and natural conditions. Economy.
Key words:
The content of the lecture: GEORAPHICAL POSITION
The United States owes much of its national character -- and its wealth -- to its good fortune in having such a large and varied landmass to inhabit and cultivate. Yet the country still exhibits marks of regional identity, and one way Americans cope with the size of their country is to think of themselves as linked geographically by certain traits, such as New England self-reliance, southern hospitality, Midwestern wholesomeness, western mellowness.
This lecture examines American geography through the filters of six main regions:
New England, made up of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.
The Middle Atlantic, comprising New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland.
The South, which runs from Virginia south to Florida and west as far as central Texas. This region also includes West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and parts of Missouri and Oklahoma.
The Midwest, a broad collection of states sweeping westward from Ohio to Nebraska and including Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, parts of Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas, and eastern Colorado.
The Southwest, made up of western Texas, portions of Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and the southern interior part of California.
The West, comprising Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, California, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Alaska, and Hawaii.
Note that there is nothing official about these regions; many other lineups are possible. These groupings are offered simply as a way to begin the otherwise daunting task of getting acquainted with the United States.
NEW ENGLAND
The smallest region, New England has not been blessed with large expanses of rich farmland or a mild climate. Yet it played a dominant role in American development. From the 17th century until well into the 19th, New England was the country's cultural and economic center. The earliest European settlers of New England were English Protestants of firm and settled doctrine. Many of them came in search of religious liberty. They gave the region its distinctive political format - the town meeting (an outgrowth of meetings held by church elders) in which citizens gathered to discuss issues of the day. Only men of property could vote. Nonetheless, town meetings afforded New Englanders an unusually high level of participation in government. Such meetings still function in many New England communities today. New Englanders found it difficult to farm the land in large lots, as was common in the South. By 1750, many settlers had turned to other pursuits. The mainstays of the region became shipbuilding, fishing, and trade.
MIDDLE ATLANTIC
The Middle Atlantic region was settled by a wider range of people than New England. Dutch immigrants moved into the lower Hudson River Valley in what is now New York State. Swedes went to Delaware. English Catholics founded Maryland, and an English Protestant sect, the Friends, settled Pennsylvania. In time, all these settlements fell under English control, but the region continued to be a magnet for people of diverse nationalities. Early settlers were mostly farmers and traders, and the region served as a bridge between North and South. Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania, midway between the northern and southern colonies, was home to the Continental Congress, the convention of delegates from the original colonies that organized the American Revolution. The same city was the birthplace of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the U.S. Constitution in 1787.As heavy industry spread throughout the region, rivers such as the Hudson and Delaware were transformed into vital shipping lanes. Cities on waterways -- New York on the Hudson, Philadelphia on the Delaware, Baltimore on Chesapeake Bay -- grew dramatically. New York is still the nation's largest city, its financial hub, and its cultural center.
THE SOUTH
The South is perhaps the most distinctive and colorful American region. The American Civil War (1861-65) devastated the South socially and economically. Nevertheless, it retained its unmistakable identity. Like New England, the South was first settled by English Protestants. But whereas New Englanders tended to stress their differences from the old country, Southerners tended to emulate the English. Even so, Southerners were prominent among the leaders of the American Revolution, and four of America's first five presidents were Virginians. After 1800, however, the interests of the manufacturing North and the agrarian South began to diverge. Especially in coastal areas, southern settlers grew wealthy by raising and selling cotton and tobacco. The most economical way to raise these crops was on large farms, called plantations, which required the work of many laborers. To supply this need, plantation owners relied on slaves brought from Africa, and slavery spread throughout the South. It took a long, concerted effort by African Americans and their supporters to end segregation.
THE MIDWEST
The Midwest is a cultural crossroads. Starting in the early 1800s easterners moved there in search of better farmland, and soon Europeans bypassed the East Coast to migrate directly to the interior: Germans to eastern Missouri, Swedes and Norwegians to Wisconsin and Minnesota. The region's fertile soil made it possible for farmers to produce abundant harvests of cereal crops such as wheat, oats, and corn. The region was soon known as the nation's "breadbasket." Most of the Midwest is flat. The Mississippi River has acted as a regional lifeline, moving settlers to new homes and foodstuffs to market. The river inspired two classic American books, both written by a native Missourian, Samuel Clemens, who took the pseudonym Mark Twain: Life on the Mississippi and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The region's hub is Chicago, Illinois, the nation's third largest city. This major Great Lakes port is a connecting point for rail lines and air traffic to far-flung parts of the nation and the world. At its heart stands the Sears Tower, at 447 meters, the world's tallest building.
THE SOUTHWEST
The Southwest differs from the adjoining Midwest in weather (drier), population (less dense), and ethnicity (strong Spanish-American and Native-American components). Outside the cities, the region is a land of open spaces, much of which is desert. The magnificent Grand Canyon is located in this region, as is Monument Valley, the starkly beautiful backdrop for many western movies. Monument Valley is within the Navajo Reservation, home of the most populous American Indian tribe. To the south and east lie dozens of other Indian reservations, including those of the Hopi, Zuni, and Apache tribes.
THE WEST
The West is a region of scenic beauty on a grand scale. All of its 11 states are partly mountainous, and the ranges are the sources of startling contrasts. To the west of the peaks, winds from the Pacific Ocean carry enough moisture to keep the land well-watered. To the east, however, the land is very dry. Parts of western Washington State, for example, receive 20 times the amount of rain that falls on the eastern side of the state's Cascade Range. In much of the West the population is sparse, and the federal government owns and manages millions of hectares of undeveloped land. Americans use these areas for recreational and commercial activities, such as fishing, camping, hiking, boating, grazing, lumbering, and mining. Alaska, the northernmost state in the Union, is a vast land of few, but hardy, people and great stretches of wilderness, protected in national parks and wildlife refuges. Hawaii is the only state in the union in which Asian Americans outnumber residents of European stock. Beginning in the 1980s large numbers of Asians have also settled in California, mainly around Los Angeles.
RELIEF AND MOUNTAINS
About half of the USA territory is covered by plateaus and mountains. The eastern part of the country is occupied by the Appalachian Mountains, which in the north come close to the Atlantic coast and in the south are separated from it by the Atlantic Lowland. West of the Appalachians stretch the Central Plains, the Great Plains, and the Mexican Lowland. The Central Plains are 500-400 m high and have a hilly moraine relief in the north and a more gentle erosional relief in the middle and southern parts. The Great Plains are a deeply cut plateau with the heights of 500m in the east to 1600m at the Cordillera foothills. The flat Mexican Lowland, with the height of up to 150m, is swampy along the Gulf coast and fringed by a strip of marshes. The Cordilleras consist of rows of mountains ranges with the heights of up to 3000-5000m and a broad strip of inter mountain tablelands and plateaus. In Alaska the mountain ranges stretch in the west-east direction and include the Brooks Range, the Yukon Tableland, the Aleutian Range with Mount McKinley, 6193m –the highest peak of the USA and the whole of North America. Rocky Mountains, this system of parallel mountain ranges stretches down the western side of North America from to New Mexico. For long the Rockies cut off the Pacific seaboard of Canada and the United States from the rest of the North America. Within the Rocky Mountains there are many national parks were trees plants animals and birds are protected. The largest of these is the Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming with its great Geysers, its herds of bison, deer, and antelope. Among all the wonders and curiosities of the Rockies, two perhaps deserve mention. One is the grizzly bear, now a rather rare inhabitant, whose fierceness and shyness great size and extreme deftness in moving have made him almost a legendary animal. The other is the great redwood tree with its amazingly tall, straight trunk, branchless for hundreds of feet from the ground.
CLIMATE
North America’s climate is changeable. There are places that are warm all the year round and there are places covered with ice and snow where summer never comes.
The United States occupies a large area in the central part of the North American Continent. Winters in the northern part of the country are long and cold. In the South winters are much shorter. Average temperature in January is mild. As the northern part of the country has such long winters the growing season is quite short.
In the South the growing season is much longer. In fact in some of the states it is nine month long . The climate of these places is affected by other things besides the distance from the Equator. Landforms also affect climate. For example a great belt of mountainous land stretches along the western edge of north America from Alaska south to Panama. Some of these mountains are so high that snow can be seen on their peaks even in summer. Summer days are often bright and warm in the mountains but the nights are cold. The growing season is far shorter than in the lowlands .
Oceans also affect climate Winters are colder in the interior than along the coasts and summers are warmer. Parts of the Pacific Coast are very wet. The high mountains of this region are responsible for all this rain. They catch the moist air that blows in from the Pacific Ocean.
To the east beyond the mountains there is a vast dry region. This dry land extends from Canada Mexico. But still farther east in the Southeastern United States you can find another wet region. Here warm moist air blows inland from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. This all brings plenty of rain to the Southeastern States. The Northern States east of the Mississippi also receive ample moisture.