- •Introduction
- •Chapter # 1. The foundations of atomic-molecular studies. The laws and concepts of stoichiometry
- •Vocabulary
- •Subject and Tasks of Chemistry
- •General notions of atomic-molecular studies
- •Amount of substance. Mole. Avogadro’s Number. Molar mass
- •Number of moles of an element
- •Mass of an element (grams)
- •X Molar mass of element (Mm)
- •Number of atoms of an element
- •Example of solution
- •4. The laws and concepts of Stoichiometry
- •5. Types of chemical reactions
- •Chapter # 2. Atomic structure
- •Vocabulary
- •General notions
- •Theories of atomic structure
- •Figure 3. Spatial orientation of p-orbitals
- •3. Principles for distribution of electrons in atoms Distributions of electrons in atoms on energy levels and sub-levels may be presented in the form of electronic formulas.
- •Ground state
- •4. Valency and Oxidation number as function of electrons distribution
- •Practice problems
- •Chapter # 3. The periodic law and periodic table of chemical elements
- •Vocabulary
- •1. Formulation
- •2. Physical meaning of the chemical periodicity
- •3. The Periodic Table
- •Periodical table of chemical elements named by d.I. Mendeleev
- •Practice problems
- •Chapter # 4. Chemical bonding
- •Vocabulary
- •Types of Chemical Bonds
- •Ionic bond
- •Nonpolar-covalent bond
- •P olar-covalent bond
- •Figure 10. Formation of Hydrogen Bonds between water molecules
- •Figure 11. Depending of boiling-points (b.Pt) of double Hydrogen-contained compounds from nature of the second atom and presence of Hydrogen bonding
- •Why does Chemical Bond occur?
- •Practice problems
- •Сhapter # 5. Laboratory glassware, labware and rules of laboratory research
- •Vocabulary
- •Chemical glassware
- •2. Chemical reagents and their storage
- •3. Elementary operations carrying out
- •4. Safety rules during carrying out laboratory works
- •5. Rules for reagents and equipment use
- •6. Rules for work carrying out and results design
- •Chapter # 6. The main classes of inorganic compounds
- •Vocabulary
- •Classification of inorganic substances
- •Inorganic substances
- •Compounds
- •2. Relation between main classes of inorganic substances
- •3. Oxides
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •4. Bases
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •5. Acids
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •6. Amphoteric hydroxides
- •Preparation
- •7. Salts
- •Preparation
- •Chemical properties
- •Chemical properties
- •6. Thermal decomposition with medium salts formation:
- •Structural-graphic formulas of chemical compounds
- •Example of solution
- •Chapter # 7. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
- •Vocabulary
- •Solutions
- •Concentration of solutions
- •Molarity (molar concentration)
- •Theory of dissociation
- •Degree of dissociation
- •Main classes of inorganic substances from viewpoint of theory of electrolytic dissociation
- •6. Ionic equations
- •Laboratory training
- •Chapter # 8. Ionic product of water. Hydrolysis of salts
- •Vocabulary
- •Ionic product of water. Notion of pH
- •General notion of Hydrolysis
- •Different types of Hydrolysis
- •Laboratory training Experiment 1. Identification of reaction medium in solutions of salts
- •Experiment 2. Influence of temperature to hydrolysis
- •Chapter # 9. Oxidation-reduction reactions
- •Vocabulary
- •1. Oxidation of Elements
- •2. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- •3. Compiling Equations of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- •4. Most Important Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
- •Types of Redox Reactions
- •Influence of Medium to Redox Reactions
- •Electromotive Series of Metals
- •Laboratory training Experiment 1. Reducing properties of metal ions of lower oxidation number
- •Chapter # 10. Complex (coordination) compounds
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •2. Nomenclature
- •3. Rules for naming of coordination compounds
- •Laboratory training
- •Chapter # 11. The halogens
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •2. Chlorine
- •Laboratory training
- •Experiment 2. Halogens oxidative activity in free state
- •Experiment 5. The salts of hydrohalogen acids insoluble in water
- •Chapter # 12. The chalcogens
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Oxygen
- •3. Sulfur
- •Experiment 6. Dilution of concentrated Sulfuric acid
- •Experiment 9. Instability of thiosulfuric acid
- •Chapter # 13. Nitrogen, phosphorus
- •Vocabulary
- •1. General characteristics
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Nitrogen
- •3. Phosphorus
- •Phosphorus behaves as the typical non-metal. It reacts with Oxygen, formed acid oxides:
- •Experiment 2. Oxidation and reducing power of nitrous acid and Nitrites
- •Chapter # 14. Chemistry of main biometals
- •Vocabulary
- •1. The Alkali Metals
- •Industrial Information
- •2. Other bioactive metals
Chemical properties
1. Interaction with basic oxides with formation of salts and water:
2HNO3 + CuO = Cu(NO3)2 + H2O;
3H2SO4 + Fe2O3 = Fe2(SO4)3 + 3H2O;
2. Interaction with amphoteric oxides with formation of salts and water:
2HCl + ZnO = ZnCl2 + H2O;
6HClO4 + Al2O3 = 2Al(ClO4)3 + 3H2O;
3. Interaction with bases with formation of salts and water:
H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + 2H2O;
2H3PO4 + 3Mg(OH)2 = Mg3(PO4) 2 + 6H2O;
4. Interaction with amphoteric hydroxides with formation of salts and water: 2HNO3 + Pb(OH)2 = Pb(NO3)2 + 2H2O;
3H2SO4 + 2Cr(OH)3 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 6H2O;
5. Interaction with metals (Red Ox reactions):
Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl2 + H2 ;
3Cu + 8HNO3 = 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O;
6. Interaction of weaker acid salts (metathesis or exchange reaction):
FePO4 + 3HNO3 = Fe(NO3)3 + H3PO4;
H2SO4 + BaCl2 = BaSO4 + 2HCl.
6. Amphoteric hydroxides
Amphoteric hydroxides are the hydrated forms of amphoteric oxides having weak basic and acidic properties.
Preparation
1. Interaction with acidic oxides forming salts and water (amphoteric hydroxides show properties of bases):
Zn(OH)2 + N2O5 = Zn(NO3)2 + H2O;
2Cr(OH)3 + 3SO3 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 3H2O.
2. Interaction with acids forming salts and water (amphoteric hydroxides show properties of bases):
Zn(OH)2 + 2HNO3 = Zn(NO3)2 + 2H2O;
2Cr(OH)3 +3H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 6H2O.
3. Interaction with basic oxides forming salts and water (amphoteric hydroxides show properties of acids):
for Zn(OH)2: H2ZnO2 + Li2O = Li2ZnO2 + H2O
for Cr(OH)3 : 2HCrO2 + BaO = Ba(CrO2)2 + H2O or
2H3CrO3 + 3BaO = Ba3(CrO3)2 + 3H2O;
4. Interaction with bases forming salts and water (amphoteric hydroxides show properties of acids):
for Zn(OH)2: H2ZnO2 + 2LiOH = Li2ZnO2 + 2H2O
for Cr(OH)3: 2HCrO2 + Ba(OH)2 = Ba(CrO2)2 + 2H2O or
2H3CrO3 + 3Ba(OH)2 = Ba3(CrO3)2 + 6H2O;
Depending on series of chemical reaction, names of amphoteric hydroxides are changed. For example, Zn(OH)2 in reactions with acidic oxides and acids must be referred to “Zinc hydroxide”, while in reactions with basic oxides and alkalis - “Zinc acid” (see Appendix 4).
7. Salts
Salts - complex substances, which consist of metal atoms and acid residuals. This is a most multiple class of inorganic compounds. Sometimes salts may include positive charged group of atoms (for example, NH4+).
Classification of salts:
Varieties |
Characteristics |
Examples |
Neutral (normal) |
Include atoms of metal (or ionic group NH4+) and acid residue. Products of full substitution of Hydrogen atoms in acids to metal atoms |
NaCl, Ca3(PO4)2, K3AlO3 |
Basic |
Include atoms of metal (or ionic group NH4+), hydroxyl OH- and acid residue. Products of incomplete substitution of OH-groups of multi-acidic bases into acid residue |
ZnOHCl, (MgOH)2SO4, (MgOH)3PO4, FeOHBr2 |
Acidic |
Include atoms of metal (or ionic group NH4+), ion H+ and acid residue. Products of incomplete substitution of H+ of multi-basic acids into atoms of metal or NH4+ |
NaHCO3, NH4H2PO4, Ca(H2PO4)2, KHSO4 |
Double |
Include atoms of two different metals and acid residue |
NaKSO4, KAl(SO4)2, NH4Cr(SO4)2. |
Mixed |
Include atoms of metal and two different acid residues |
CaCl(ClO) |
Complex |
Contain complex cations or anions |
[Ag(NH3)2]Cl, Na3[Co(NO2)6] |
Salts are entitled starting from the name of corresponding metal and acid residue (See Appendix 4). For example, Ca3(PO4)2 - Calcium OrthoPhosphate, NaNO3 - Sodium Nitrate, KHSO4 - Potassium HydroSulfate, FeOHCl2 - Iron (III) Hydroxy Chloride etc.
A few salts and chemical compounds or mixes have common names as household (domestic) chemicals or technical reactants. Sometimes names of such chemicals were given by Alchemists in great antiquity (for example, BaSO4 (Barium Sulfate) - Heavy Spar, Aqua-regia - Mixture of conc. HNO3 (1 volume) and conc. HCl (3 volumes) etc. (See Appendix 12).