3 Negation

The most common used negator is NOT. It has two forms: uncontracted (do not, have not) and contracted (don’t, haven’t). Besides NOT there are other words, so-called N-negators: no, nobody ,no one, none of, nothing, nowhere, neverand the conjunction neither…nor.

There are numerous determiners, pronouns, or adverbs that do not occur outside negative or interrogative sen-ces. These items are called non-assertive forms. (adverbs: already – yet; sometimes – ever; a lot – much; pronouns: somebody – anybody; something – anything).

Besides NOT and other N-negators there are certain words which are negative in meaning and behaviour, although they do not appear negative in form: hardly, scarcely, barely; few, little; rarely, seldom

They have the following similarities:

1) they are followed by non-assertive rather than assertive form (I seldom get any sleep)

2) when in pre-subject position some of them can cause subject- operator inversion, literary or rhetorical in tone (Rarely does crime pay so well as he seems to think)

3) they are followed by positive rather than negative tag-questions (She scarcely seems to care, does she?)

Negative questions are often used as

a) exclamations.

b) invitations.

Won’t you come in and have a cup of tea?

In answer to negative questions yes and no are used according to the facts

and not according to the form of the question.

Haven’t you seen the film? – Yes (I have seen it). Or: No (I haven’t seen it).

Forming:

1. particle ”not”+ auxiliary verb

2 negative words (never, none …)

3 seldom , rarely

4 adding smth to word (negative prefix) non, un, dis,im

A double negative occurs quite properly in a sentence, where in a sentence the two negatives neutralize each other & than the ultimate meaning of the sentence is positive: (I just couldn’t do nothing = I had to do something)

1 . Very informal speech among friend (I don’t know nothing )

2 In lyric of songs , poetry

3 litotes (It is not illegal )

4 Rhetorically positive expressions (When I look back I don’t regret not going to school)

4.The subject. Ways of expressing the subject. “It” as the subject of the sentence. Existential “there”

The subject is the main part of the sentence. The subject is used in the Nominative Case. And answers the questions ‘what,who’. (A young girl is looking at a man). The S. can be exoressed by a noun, pronoun,gerund,infinitive,substantivized adjective,verb,phrase,subordinate clause.  It is a pers.pronoun which can express a subject. It’s used to point out objects or things without naming them. (It’s nice). It can express states.(It’s warm) Very often it’s forward an infinitive construction.(It’s important for you to do it on time). In such a way the sentence can be paraphrased beginning with the infinit.(to do it on time is important for you). “There” can introduce the sentence to show the existing of smb or smth. The typical construction is There+be+indefinite nominal phrase+some other parts of a sentence. (There is a beautiful picture) There shows that smth exists or happened& it performs the function of the subject