6. Offer

• We use ‘Can I … or ‘Could I ... + the Indefinite Infinitive’ when we offer to do things for somebody (present or future reference)

• ‘Can I ... ’ (informal)

• ‘Could I ... ’ (more polite)

• Can I help you with the dishes? – Yes, please. / No, thank you.

• Can we do anything for you?

• Can/Could I offer you some coffee? – Yes, I’d like some please.

• Can/Could I offer you a sandwich? – Yes, I’d like one please. Yes, I’d love one please.

• What can I do for you?

• Is there anything I can do to help?

• Can I be of any service to you? (это предложение звучит подчеркнуто вежливо)

7. Suggestion

• We use ‘can/could + the Indefinite Infinitive’ to suggest doing something. (present or future reference)

• I/we can always leave early. (informal)

• We can go to the cinema.

• You could phone her. Ты мог бы позвонить ей.

• We could go into research.

• What shall we do this evening. We could go to the cinema. Мы могли бы пойти в кино.

• When you go to New York, you could stay with Linda. ... ты могла бы остановиться у Линды.

• We use ‘could + the Perfect Infinitive’ to suggest doing something. (past reference)

  • He could have asked for advice.

• You also use ‘couldn’t’ in a question to suggest doing something.

  • Couldn’t we do it at the weekend? Не могли бы мы сделать это в конце недели?

Typical responses: (Yes,) I’d like to. / I’d love to.

(No,) I’d prefer not to, thank you.

8. Reproach. It is used in affirmative sentences.

• We use only could + the Perfect Infinitive /(could have + Participle II) (past reference)

• Could is rendered in Russian by: мог бы

• You could have met me at the station. Ты мог бы встретить меня на вокзале.

• You could have phoned me. Ты мог бы мне позвонить.

9. Criticism, disapproval (неодобрение). It is used in affirmative sentences.

• could + the Indefinite Infinitive (present or future reference)

• could + the Perfect Infinitive/(could have + Participle II) (past reference)

• She could at least wait until 5 o’clock. (present or future reference)

• She could at least have waited until 5 o’clock. (past reference)

• You could have told me about the party. (=You had the chance to tell me but you didn’t.)

10. Surprise, disbelief (неверие; недоверие)

• We use ‘can/could + all forms of the Infinitive’ in interrogative sentences.

• It corresponds to the Russian: неужели ...?; может ли быть ... ?; разве …?

• can/could = Is it possible that ... ?

• Can it be so late? Неужели уже так поздно? (Is it possible that it is so late?)

• Can he know it? Неужели он знает это?

• Can/could they be waiting for us? Неужели они ждут нас?

• Can he still be working? Неужели он все еще работает?

• Can he have thought we had left already? Неужели он думал, что мы уже уехали?

• Could he have known her before? Неужели он знал ее прежде. (= Is it possible that he should have known her before? /Is it possible that he has known her before?)

• Can/could the children have been playing since morning? Неужели дети с утра играют?

• Can he have been waiting for us all this time? Неужели он ждал нас все это время?

11. Incredulity (недоверчивость), doubt, improbability (невероятность, неправдоподобие)

• We use ‘can’t/couldn’t + all forms of the Infinitive’ in negative sentences

• It corresponds to the Russian: не может быть, чтобы ...; вряд ли (это так)..; невероятно...

• ‘can’t/couldn’t = It is impossible that ...

• The time reference is indicated not by the form of the verb, i.e. can or could but by that of the infinitive. However, could is used instead of can to express greater doubt; could makes the sentences a little more emphatic; the negation with could is not so categorical as with can

• Such sentences are emotionally coloured and so their application is rather restricted

• He can’t be so old. (= It is impossible that he is old.) Не может быть, что он так стар.

• He can’t be telling the truth. Не может быть, что он говорит правду.

• She can't be still waiting. He может быть, чтобы она все еще ждала вас.

• He can’t be working all the time. . (= It is impossible that he is working all the time.)

• He can’t have seen it. Не может быть, чтобы он видел это./Не мог он это видеть./Вряд ли он это видел. (= It’s impossible that he saw it.)

• She can’t have understood what you meant. Вряд ли она поняла, что ты имел в виду.

• ‘Oh!’ cried Fleur: ‘You can’t have done it!’ He может быть, чтобы вы это сделали!

• She couldn’t have done it; she is such a nice woman. Не может быть, чтобы она сделала это; она такая славная женщина. (= It is impossible that she should have done it/ It is impossible that she has done it.)

• He can’t have been translating the article for two hours. Не может быть, чтобы он переводил это статью два часа.

Note 1: The Russian sentences of the type: «Неужели он не...? Не может быть, чтобы он не...» can be translated into English in different ways:

• by complex sentences:

• Can it be that you haven’t seen him? Неужели вы не видели его?

• It can’t be that you don’t know him. Не может быть, что вы его не знаете.

  • by different lexical means:

    • Can/could you have failed to see him? Неужели вы его не видели?

• He can’t have failed to notice you. Он не мог не заметить вас. /Не может быть, чтобы он не заметил вас.

  • Can she dislike me? Неужели я ей не нравлюсь?

  • Не can’t dislike it here. He может быть, чтобы ему здесь не нравилось.

  • Can nobody have seen him? Неужели никто не видел его?

  • Nobody can have seen him do it. He может быть, чтобы никто не заметил .....

  • Can he have never written that letter? Неужели он так и не написал письмо?

  • She can’t have failed to see him. Не может быть, чтобы она его не увидела/ не могла она его не увидеть.

  • She can’t dislike music. Не может быть, чтобы она не любила музыку.

12. Logical assumption (предположение)/deduction (логический вывод), (based on evidence-очевидность)

• ‘can’t’/‘couldn’t’ is the negative of ‘must’ in this meaning

• We use ‘can’t’/ ‘couldn’t’ in negative sentences to say that we are not sure about something in the present or past. (= I’m sure ..., I’m certain ..., I don’t think ..., it is impossible...)

• That can’t be Jack. He drives a Fiat. (= I’m sure that isn’t Jack/It is impossible that it is Jack.) Это не может быть Джек. / Не может быть, что это Джек. /Я уверена, что это не Джек.

• They couldn’t be on holiday. (= I don’t think they are on holiday.)

• He couldn’t be a doctor, he isn’t wearing a white coat. (= I’m certain he isn’t a doctor.)

• She can’t have gone to a party. (= I’m sure she hasn’t gone to a party.) Не могла она уйти на вечеринку. /Не может быть, что она ушла на вечеринку. /Я уверена, что она не ушла на вечеринку.

• He can’t have received the message. (= I’m sure he didn’t receive the message.) Не мог он получить сообщение. / Не может быть, что он получил сообщение. /Я уверена, что он не получил сообщение.

• You can’t have forgotten me. (= I’m sure you haven’t forgotten me.)

• He can’t have said that. (= I’m sure he didn’t say it.)

• She can’t have fixed the computer, it’s still not working properly. (= I’m sure she didn’t fix it.)

• We use ‘must’ in affirmative sentences to say that we are sure about something in the present or past. (= I’m sure ..., I’m certain ..., I have no doubt ... .)

• That must be Helen when she was a baby. (= I’m sure that is Helen when she was a baby.) Это должна быть Хелен в детстве. /Это, должно быть, Хелен в детстве. /Я уверен, что это Хелен в детстве.

• You must have enjoyed your trip to Mexico. (= I’m sure you enjoyed your trip to Mexico.)

• This article must have been written by a woman. (= I’m sure this article was written by a woman.) Эта статья, должно быть, была написана женщиной. /Я уверена, что эта статья была написана женщиной.

• She must have been studying. (= I’m certain she was studying.)

can’t/couldn’t are used in negations and express negative logical assumptions

must is used in affirmative sentences and express positive logical assumptions

• You can’t/couldn’t have been at the swimming pool yesterday. It was closed all day. (= I’m sure you weren’t at the swimming pool yesterday)

• The shoes you bought are very nice. They must have been expensive. (= I’m sure they were expensive.)

13. In questions we can use can, could, might (but not may) to express supposition /possibility

• I can’t find him anywhere. Where can/could/might he have gone? Куда же он мог уйти?

• Where can I have left my spectacles? Где я мог забыть свои очки!

• How could they have missed the train? They left the house early. Как они могли опоздать на поезд! Они рано вышли из дома.

• What can it mean? Что это может означать!

• Who can that be at this time of night? Кто это может быть в такое время ночью!

• Why could he have left that note? Почему он оставил эту записку!

• Where can/could these noises be coming from?

• The telephone is ringing. Who can that be?

• Sally is very late. What could have happened to her?

14. When could denotes an unreal action, it has no temporal meaning at all.

• We use ‘could + Indefinite Infinitive’ when we speak of the present or future (present or future reference.)

• We use ‘could + Perfect Infinitive’ when we speak of the past (past reference).

• could do – a possible action now or in the future (present or future reference)

• could have done – the action was possible in the past but didn’t happen (past reference)

• She could paint landscapes. Она могла бы писать пейзажи. (present or future reference)

• She could learn much more quickly if she paid attention. (= She would be able to learn much more quickly if she paid attention.)

• She could have explained the mystery (but she didn’t). Она могла бы объяснить эту тайну. - (the action refers to the past, but it was not carried out; past reference)

• Set phrases:

• can’t help doing (cannot help doing) не могу не делать ч-л, не могу не удержаться от ч-л

• can’t but do smth (cannot but do) не могу не делать ч-л; мне ничего другого не остаётся, как

• I can’t but suggest you do it. Я не могу не предложить вам сделать это.

• We cannot but hope he is right. Нам остаётся только надеяться, что …

• One cannot but wonder… нельзя не задуматься…

• as can be – an intensifying expression

• They are as pleased as can be. Они очень (страшно) довольны.