2. Phonology

A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit (a sound type) that serves to differentiate between meanings. E.g. the meanings of words: /bid/ – /bi:d/ – /bo:d/; the meanings of word-forms: /gu:s/ – /gi:s/, /spend/ – /spent/. A phoneme, as a sound type, is represented by its allophones. Allophones are positional variants of one and the same phoneme. Unlike phonemes, allophones do not differentiate between meanings. E.g. short and long vowels in Ukrainian; aspirated and non-aspirated consonants in English.

Theory of the phoneme. The Prague Linguistic School (N.S. Trubetskoi, A. Martine) defined the phoneme as a constituent of the sound form of words. Such elements are similar in different words. Comparison of words and word forms which differ in one sound results in distinguishing phonemic oppositions, or contrasting pairs of sounds (minimal pairs). Such oppositions can be of various types. The Copenhagen Linguistic School (L. Helmslev) also regarded the phoneme as a component of words or word forms. Besides, it was emphasized that the phoneme has no meaning of its own, but it helps to differentiate between the meanings of larger units. The American School of Descriptive Linguistics (K.L. Pike, Ch. Hockett) introduced the definition of an allophone as a positional variant of one and the same phoneme. The school considered various types of contexts (distributions) in which phonemes may occur.

There were differences in interpretation of the phoneme by the Moscow and Leningrad Phonological Schools. The Moscow Phonological School (R. I. Avanesov, P.S. Kuznetsov, A.A. Reformatsky) considered the phoneme as the smallest sound unit and a constituent of the sound form of morphemes and words. The basic variant of a phoneme (its invariant) is represented in its strong position, when a phoneme differentiates between the meanings of words and morphemes. The sounds make up a phoneme if they occur in one and the same position in the morpheme. E.g. Ukr. /д/, /т/ in сади /сад-и/ and сад /сат/; /т’/, /т/ in п’ять /пj’ат’/ and п’ятий /пj’ат-bй/. The Leningrad Phonological School (L. V. Sherba, L. R. Zinder, M. I. Matusevich) maintained that a phoneme is made up by the sounds which are similar acoustically, and which are associated with one and the same meaning. A phoneme is an autonomous unit; it does not depend on the position of the sound in a morpheme. The sounds belong to different phonemes if one can find in the language even one pair of words or word forms where these sounds differentiate between meanings. E.g. Russ. /д/, /т/ in дом and том/; /т’/, /т/ in рад /рат/ and рать /рат’/.

S egmental phonemes are chunks, or segments, of different sounds, e.g. /b/, /t/, /e/, /I/, etc. Non-segmental phonemes are various tones that help to distinguish meanings, e.g. Chinese: ma [ ] – ‘mother’; ma [ ] – ‘hemp’, ma [ ] – ‘scold’, ma [ ] – ‘horse’.

Phonemic oppositions

• Integral features of phonemes are the features shared by some phonemes; such features are considered when phonemes are united into groups, e.g. Engl. /n/, /n/, /m/ are nasal sounds; /p/, /t/, /k/ are aspirated sounds. Differential features of phonemes are the features that differ phonemes from one another. Such features are exposed in phonemic oppositions.

• Phonemic oppositions are the pairs of phonemes that have integral features, being opposed to each other by one or several differential features. The major types of phonemic oppositions are: (1) one-feature opposition, where the phonemes have one differential feature, e.g. Engl. /t/ :: /d/ – voiceless :: voiced; Ukr. /т/ :: /т’/ – hard :: soft; (2) multi-feature opposition, where the phonemes have several differential features, e.g. Engl. /p/ :: /z/ – voiceless :: voiced, labial :: lingual, occlusive :: constrictive; (3) typical opposition, which is revealed in a number of sound pairs, e.g. /p/ :: /b/, /t/ :: /d/, /k/ :: /g/, etc. – voiceless :: voiced; (4) isolative opposition, where the opposed phonemes belong to different languages, e.g. Ukr. /в/ :: Engl. /w/.

• The strong position of a phoneme is such a position where the features of a phoneme are most distinct. Vowels are in their strong position when they are stressed. Consonants are in their strong position when they stand before a vowel or a sonorous consonant. The weak position of a phoneme is such a position where some features of a phoneme become indistinct or they can even disappear. Vowels are in their weak position when they are unstressed. Consonants are in their weak position when they stand before noise consonants or at the end of a word.

• Neutralization of phonemic oppositions occurs in a one-feature opposition, when one of its members loses its differential feature while used in a weak position. Thus, the opposition is reduced to one member. E.g. Russ. /д/ :: /т/  /т/ in /кот/ ‘код’ :: /кот/ ‘кот’.

Phonetic and phonemic transcriptions. Transcription is a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way. In phonetic transcription, the symbolized sounds are allophones that preserve their articulatory / auditory identity. Phonetic transcription is given in square brackets: [t]. In phonemic transcription, the symbolized sounds are phonemes, or “generalized sounds” which have a linguistic function, i.e. which differentiate between meanings. Phonemic transcription is given in slanted brackets: /t/.

Spelling and pronunciation. Pronunciation and spelling do not coincide. Between them, there are different degrees of divergence exhibited by various principles of orthography, or the system of spelling rules.

1. Orthography based on the phonetic principle most closely relates to pronunciation: the words tend to be spelt as they are pronounced. This principle is typical of Byelorussian and Serbo-Croatian. E.g. Byelorussian вада, карова, лес – лясы, стол – сталы.

2. Orthography based on the morphological principle means that a morpheme retains its spelling, irrespective of the changes in its pronunciation. Ukrainian and Russian set the examples of languages where this principle is observed. E.g. Ukr. водний – вода; Russ. дом – домашний.

3. Orthography based on the historical- traditional principle exhibits the most considerable divergence between pronunciation and spelling. In many cases spelling, which was motivated before, becomes non-motivated later. Still, it is preserved, being linked to pronunciation by convention. This principle is obvious in English. E.g. night OE /`ni:ht/  CE /`nait/. Cf. also brought /`bro:t/, exhaust /ig `zo:st/, campaign /k m` pein/.