Вопросы для повторения изученного материала
1. Сколько форм имеет Participle I?
2. В каких функциях в предложении может употребляться:
а) Participle I Indefinite Passive (being done)?
b) Participle I Perfect Active (having done)?
3. Чем отличается «независимый причастный оборот» от «зависимого»?
4. Каким членом предложения являются названные обороты?
5. Какие формы имеет инфинитив? Напишите форму Perfect Infinitive Passive.
6. Каким членом предложения является субъектный инфинитивный оборот? Сформулируйте основные признаки оборота.
7. С какого члена предложения рекомендуется начинать перевод предложения с субъектным инфинитивным оборотом?
8. Как выглядит схема предложения с объектным инфинитивным оборотом?
9. Какими частями речи обычно выражено дополнение?
10. После каких глаголов инфинитив в составе объектного инфинитивного оборота употребляется без частицы to?
11. Когда употребляется правило согласования времен?
12. Как обращаются в косвенную речь: а) повествовательное предложение, б) вопросительное предложение, в) повелительное предложение.
11. В каком времени должно стоять сказуемое в придаточном предложении
(после союзов if, as if) во II типе условных предложений?
12. Какое из сказуемых главного предложения вы бы выбрали для III типа условных предложений should/would do (be done) или should/would have (been) done?
13. Есть ли разница в переводе условных предложений II и III типа?
14. В каких случаях возможна инверсия (обратный порядок слов) в условных предложениях II и III типов?
Вопросы к экзамену
(для ЗФ)
Для успешной сдачи экзамена Вам необходимо проработать материал практикума в полном объеме: перевести тексты, выполнить все задания к ним, а также выучить новые слова и словосочетания по специальности. Для успешной работы с текстами особое внимание должно быть уделено изучению грамматического материала по следующим разделам:
Страдательный залог.
Модальные глаголы.
Причастие, его формы и функции. Зависимый и независимый причастные обороты.
Формы и функции инфинитива. Субъектный и объектный инфинитивные обороты. Правила образования и способы перевода на русский язык.
Согласование времен. Косвенная речь.
Сослагательное наклонение. Условные предложения 3-х типов.
Рекомендуется также повторить спряжение английских глаголов в действительном залоге изъявительного наклонения.
Ключ к тесту (Урок 9, упр. 4. Quiz Answers)
1) George Washington was the first President of the United States.
2) The Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776.
3) America was named after Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian merchantand adventurer. His Christian name was “Americus” in Latin.
4) The Mayflower.
5) The Capitol.
6) In 1621.
7) The first capital in the United states was New York.
8) The US President lives and works in the White house.
9) “The Star-Spangled Banner”.
10) The American Flag is called “The stars and Stripes” and “The Star-Spangled Banner”.
11) America’s symbol of freedom is the Statue of Liberty in New York”
12) Americans celebrate Christmas on the 25th of December.
13) The steppes of North America are called prairies.
14) The US President is the commander-in chief of the US Armed Forces.
15) The American parliament is Congress.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
TEXT 1. Прочитайте и переведите текст. Составьте аннотацию к тексту.
Пояснения к тексту:
ISO – International Organization for Standardization
MSS – management system standards
CSR – corporate social responsibility
ISO IS WELL POSITIONED TO TAKE THE LEADERSHIP
Trade means recognition of the wide variation in operating conditions from firm to firm, sector to sector, and country to country, there is a strong need to devise approaches to corporate responsibility which are flexible and practical so that they can be used by small, medium and large businesses operating in both developed and developing countries. Whatever the outcome ISO standards would be only part of an effective response to that challenge, focusing on management system standards.
A CSR MSS would need to be used in combination with other legal or regulatory tools developed by international organizations. Such a standard from an internationally recognized body such as ISO, known for balanced, transparent, multi-stakeholder and voluntary standards, with a track record of market based and market-accepted MSS, could be the tool that some international businesses and organizations would feel comfortable in using. It could reassure them that they were doing what they could to ensure fair and reasonable employment to many thousands of people all over the globe and the communities dependent on them.
ISO is well positioned to take leadership with respect to the development of voluntary corporate social responsibility management systems and could build on the intellectual and practical infrastructure of ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 MSS and the momentum associated with close to a half-million firms certified as compliant to these systems. It is an opportunity for ISO to add to its relevance in world affairs and global trade.
High risk, no business at all can be conducted. The type of challenges involved include changing country climate (political, economic, human rights), balancing risks with potential opportunities, protecting brand image, and corporate reputation. Among the terms of engagement are certain supplier issues such as: ethical standards, legal requirements; environmental requirements; community involvement, and employment standards ; within the latter, aspects such as child labor, prison or forced labor, disciplinary practices, working hours, wages and benefits, freedom of association, discrimination and health and safety are weighed up individually. The local community benefit, the country benefit, and the companies also benefit.
An ISO standard could be of real value in indexing these measures in terms of an international benchmark, with a non-onerous management process. In the future, collaboration with the local authorities, transparency, standardization of the monitoring and reporting process would be developed, using, if possible, a minimum number of global standards and a management process.
Corporate social responsibility has a special relevance for developing countries, even though corporations cannot and should not be expected to assume the role of governments in protecting the public interest.
The existence of CSR MSS can work in favour of countries needing support and protection. Because of their participation within ISO, such developing countries have a real opportunity to participate in the development of the standards. They also have a real opportunity to participate in the implementation of the standards in their jurisdiction. There is every chance that firms complying with ISO CR MSS will contribute to the economic, environmental and social well-being of the communities in which they operate, and operate approaches within their MSS that reflect the specific circumstances of those communities.
Unevenness in bargaining strength is aggravated by the fact that most developing countries have economies that are structurally dependent on the export of one set of goods or one service. Dominica, for example, is almost totally dependent on export of bananas.
The picture is less bright in an imperfect market where competition is not between equal firms, and where there is little or no regulation. The outcome is that business is driven not by the objective of efficiently producing the best quality product, but rather by the race to produce the best financial bottom line and shareholder value. This obsession with the bottom line became more important than the efficient delivery of services. Competitiveness has led to a reduction, not an increase in the number of firms since one way to beat competition is to eliminate it. 51 of the 100 biggest economies in the world are now corporations, and only 49 are nation states. Governments once battled for physical territory today fight for market share. The result is that often a multinational corporation obtains investment conditions that are just not acceptable and would certainly not be possible in home country.
A mention of corporate social responsibility often brings to mind the protection of children, of exploited labor, of unjust conditions imposed on developing country workers by international companies switching their production sites to take advantage of the best financial operations, where their first worry is the shareholder’s profit and the company’s bottom line, not their workers’ well-being.
If these considerations do certainly come under the wing of corporate social responsibility the field is much wider; in developed countries, situations arise in which employees and workers find themselves treated without consideration, and their jobs, livelihoods and conditions disposed of or regulated at the whim of distant bosses or boardrooms. The spate of recent spectacular collapses and revelations of financial malpractices shows what can happen when huge companies fail to apply ethical values or appropriate social behavior in their operations. Multinationals are too important to be left to voluntary and self-generated standards.
The interest of an ISO standard would be to provide a common platform of criteria for all companies worldwide to judge for multinational corporations. They are held to codes of conduct only for what national legislation requires on the social and environmental impact of their operations. True, they have taken up voluntary codes of ethical behavior. The management systems standards or other type of ISO document envisaged would need to give due consideration to the widely differing possibilities and requirements of developing countries.
The very existence of ISO CSR standards, however, although voluntary and probably not implemented by all firms will raise a bar on how corporations function. A triple bottom line (economic, social and environmental performance) would certainly be an advance. And education would play a big role : consumers should be encouraged to purchase in priority those goods and services that have been produced by corporations that were certified to any eventual future ISO CSR standards themselves and to be judged upon. The intention for such a standard would be to work within the “triple bottom line” concept in which economic, social and environmental parameters for measuring corporate social performance were embodied. A standard based on a holistic approach that involves all aspects of life will be an excellent tool for the guidance of corporate managers, and will enable a real contribution to the community. ISO would be the best forum for the development of a standard in this area. After product standards ISO management systems took the concept of standardization a step further. These could then form a trio of ISO management standards, and be three pillars supporting business efforts to show that they cared about quality, the environment, and the social effects of their production or activity.
The management system standard approach was adopted after much discussion as the only way possible to deal with the issue of diversity (legal, ethical, social issues, for each corporation) – which exists even in an apparently homogeneous society such as Japan’s, so that the standard was created using a base framework similar to that of the ISO 14000 series. By treating the CSR standard as a management system standard, it was able to contain and treat the diversity issue in a consistent, creative and dynamic manner. The standard puts great emphasis on ethical/legal compliance. The general structure of the standard is composed of four management processes (Plan, Do, Check, Act). Such a standard does not lay down the objectives that any organization should pursue, but lets each determine its own objectives. Of importance in establishing the CSR standard is motivating organizations to get involved in CSR activities. If they feel there is little or no incentive, the CSR standard will have little effect in changing corporate behaviour, the business world, or the overall situation. Most attractive to a corporation in this respect is the position of CSR activities as a competitive advantage.
ISO should learn from its own past successful achievements in the process of making the management system standards, especially the experience of developing ISO 14001.
The consumers are increasingly concerned with labour protection, the environment and the social aspects of a firm’s activities. They will less and less accept to buy goods made by firms who have not respected a code of good conduct in their dealings with their suppliers and employees. The work of ISO COPOLCO in bringing consumer interests to the fore within ISO is vital. ISO might be able to combine some of the CSR requirements with those in QMS (quality management systems) and EMS (environmental management systems) and thereby produce less of a burden to industry in terms of certification.
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U.S. REGULATORY PHILOSOPHY
It may be useful to know the US regulatory philosophy to understand when federal or state government agencies are likely to become involved in conformity assessment, especially product certification. The United States's regulatory philosophy relies heavily on a manufacturer's declaration of conformity (or self-certification) wherever possible. Manufacturers' declaration of conformity is one of the oldest and simplest forms of certification. The vast majority of U.S. marketplace transactions involve only the buyer and the seller – without intervention by any third party, whether government or the private sector.
There are a number of reasons why this approach is successful in the United States. These include: (1) the sometimes severe penalties imposed by the U.S. legal and judicial system on products proven to be defective or hazardous to the public safety or environment; (2) the increasing access that the U.S. consumer has to information about poor quality or hazardous and defective products through various news and publications media; (3) the size of the U.S. marketplace and the ability of the U.S. consumer to switch to a competing product if dissatisfied; and (4) U.S. laws and regulations regarding truth in labeling and advertising.
The last three serve to increase consumer protection by enabling U.S. consumers to make better informed decisions regarding the products they purchase and to switch to brands if dissatisfied both effectiveness and cost and to weigh the two when establishing a new program.
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FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT (USA)
Federal government involvement generally occurs when Congress passes a law giving a specific federal agency the statutory authority required to address such a problem at the national level. Federal agencies then develop regulations to implement that law. As required by the Administrative Procedures Act, such regulations go through an extensive public review and comment process before they become final.
In addition to regulatory programs, federal agencies also conduct a number of other types of certification programs. In general, federal government certification programs can be classified into several general categories:
Programs to certify products which directly affect the health or safety of the user or the general public.
Programs to test products to avoid the necessity for retesting at local levels or prior to each procurement.
Programs to provide a uniform basis for trade by assessing the quality and condition of products offered for sale.
Examples of the first type of certification program include the evaluation and approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, of new animal and human drugs, medical devices, biologicals, and other products; the certification by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), U.S. Department of Transportation, of airplanes and major airplane components; respirators and other breathing apparatus by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; and the certification by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), Department of Labor, of electrical and other potentially hazardous equipment used in mines.
An example of the second type of program is the Department of Defense's (DOD) Qualified Products Listing (QPL) Program for parts, materials and components used in military systems. This program reduces retesting prior to each government purchase by testing products and placing those approved on appropriate QPL's. An extension of this concept also underlies the DOD Qualified Manufacturing Lists (QML's) Program, in which a manufacturer's process controls and manufacturing capabilities are evaluated and approved for an entire range of products.
An example of the third type of program is the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) program to grade and certify meat and meat products (on a voluntary basis) using uniform grading standards for the buying and selling of such products. The USDA also certifies dairy products, fresh and processed fruits, vegetables, nuts and related products. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce, likewise inspects and grades processed fish and shellfish at a seafood processor's request.
The complexity of such programs and the procedures used by each can vary extensively depending on purpose, the nature of the product or service, as well as the extent to which private sector programs are available and effective and can be used to supplement federal efforts. More complex and comprehensive programs tend to be more effective, but they also tend to be more costly. The federal government is obligated (by law in the regulatory area) to consider.
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GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT
Although the U.S. Government relies to a large extent on manufacturers' declarations of conformity to both mandatory and voluntary product requirements, as well as on industry's self- policing efforts, if a product fails to meet mandatory requirements, the federal agency with jurisdiction over that product has the authority to take enforcement action against the producer, supplier or distributor of the product.
Governmental reliance on a manufacturer's or supplier's declaration of conformity does not preclude the federal government from taking whatever action it deems necessary against a manufacturer or supplier if the government determines that a product is not in compliance with regulatory requirements.
When manufacturer's self-declarations or industry self-policing efforts are not effective or adequate, government agencies may become more directly involved in the assessment of compliance with mandatory product requirements. If the problem with a specific product or service is a local one, states and local government agencies are likely to be the responsible authorities. If a serious problem exists, which is national in scope and which cannot be adequately or economically addressed at the state and local levels, then the federal government is likely to get involved.
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HISTORY
Errors committed in manufacturing have been an impetus for creating quality standards. For example, in World War I, a high percentage of shells failed to explode. This was traced to different definitions of an inch by the two major UK armaments manufacturers, leading to calibration standards.
During World War II, the United Kingdom had a serious problem with accidental detonations in weapons factories. In an attempt to solve the problem, the Ministry of Defence placed inspectors in the factories to oversee the production process; to supply to the Government, a company had to write up the procedure for making their product, have the procedure approved by the Ministry and ensure their workers followed the procedure.
In 1959, the United States developed Quality Program Requirements, a quality standard for military procurement, detailing what suppliers had to do to achieve conformance. By 1962, NASA had similarly developed Quality System Requirements for its suppliers. In 1968, NATO adopted the AQAP (Allied Quality Assurance Procedures) specifications for the procurement of NATO equipment.
The idea of quality assurance spread beyond the military. In 1966, the United Kingdom Government led the first national campaign for quality and reliability with the slogan "Quality is everybody's business." In 1969, the UK and Canada developed quality assurance standards for suppliers. By this time, suppliers were being assessed by any number of their customers. In 1969, a UK committee report on the subject recommended that suppliers' methods should be assessed against a generic standard of quality assurance, to avoid duplication of effort.
In 1971, the British Standards Institution published the first UK standard for quality assurance, BS 9000, which was developed for the electronics industry. In 1974, BSI published BS 5179, Guidelines for Quality Assurance.
In order to shift the burden of inspection from the customer, quality assurance was guaranteed by the supplier through third-party inspection, though none of the assessing bodies at that time accepted any legal liability for the quality
of their decisions. The collapse of a jetty at Dover, which had been assessed by LRQA, an assessing body, and the subsequent court case forced a rethink. Through the 1970s, BSI organized meetings with industry to set a common standard. The result was BS 5750 in 1979, which however much consulation there was, turned out to be an almost exact replica of the DEF-STAN 05-21/24 series of military quality assurance Standards, driven by a Rear Admiral Spikernell who took over as Director General of BSI after a spell in charge of military purchasing. Key industry bodies agreed to drop their own standards and use it instead. The purpose of BS 5750 was to provide a common contractual document, demonstrating that industrial production was controlled.
In 1982 the UK government produced a white paper entitled "Standards, Quality and International Competition". This introduced the concept of certification of a company's management system as a marketing tool. Obviously, an independent third party was needed to ensure fairness. The original idea in the white paper was that BSI would partner with trade associations to produce industry sector-specific variants of BS 5750, but since these variants were never allowed to exceed the basic requirements of BS 5750, and few trade bodies had the necessary resources, BSI became the first de facto assessors.
The lack of technical expertise in the first assessors, and the inevitable fact that the first generation of assessors were trained by people with purely military quality assurance skills caused many problems. At the time, military procurement contracts were given on a cost-plus basis, so on-costs such as inspection, internal auditing and procedure writing became profit centres.
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REVISIONS OF A STANDARD
The standard has evolved over several revisions. The initial 1987 version, ISO 9000:1987, had the same structure as the UK Standard BS 5750, with three 'models' for quality management systems, the selection of which was based on the scope of activities of the organization.
This initial document, while structured like the British Standard, drew heavily from numerous documents then in use around the world. Although the Standard has gone through two more iterations which have resulted in some radically changed language, all the core, prevention oriented quality assurance requirements were present in the 1987 document. Contrary to many claims, the Standard did not focus on quality control via retroactive checking and corrective actions. The language of this first version of the Standard was influenced by existing US and other Defence Military Standards ("MIL SPECS") so was more accessible to manufacturing, and was well-suited to the demands of a rigorous, stable, factory-floor manufacturing process. With its structure of twenty 'elements' of requirements, the emphasis tended to be overly placed on conformance with procedures rather than the overall process of management which was the actual intent.
The 1994 version, ISO 9000:1994, was an attempt to break from the practices which had somewhat corrupted the use of the 1987 standard. It also emphasized quality assurance via preventive actions, and continued to require evidence of compliance with documented procedures. Unfortunately, as with the first edition, companies tended to implement its requirements by creating shelf-loads of procedure manuals, and becoming burdened with an ISO bureaucracy. Adapting and improving processes could be particularly difficult in this kind of environment.
The 2000 version, ISO 9000:2000, sought to make a radical change in thinking by actually placing the concept of process management front and centre in the Standard. Documents produced by the ISO Technical Committee which drafted the third edition make it clear that they didn't see any change in the essential goals of the standard, which had always been about 'a documented system' not a 'system of documents'. The goal was always to have management system effectiveness via process performance metrics. The third edition makes this more visible and so reduced the emphasis on having documented procedures if clear evidence could be presented to show that the process was working well. Expectations of continual process improvement and tracking customer satisfaction were made explicit at this revision. Unfortunately too many organizations continue to produce reams of unnecessary documents and to write quality systems around the paragraph structures of ISO 9001 rather than analysing their business processes and building systems around the process flow of the organization.
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Пояснения к тексту:
BSI – British Standards Institute
CERTIFICATION
ISO does not itself certify organizations. Many countries have formed accreditation bodies to authorize certification bodies, which audit organizations applying for ISO 9001 compliance certification. It is important to note that it is not possible to be certified to ISO 9000. Although commonly referred to as ISO 9000:2000 certification, the actual standard to which an organization's quality management can be certified is ISO 9001:2000. Both the accreditation bodies and the certification bodies charge fees for their services. The various accreditation bodies have mutual agreements with each other to ensure that certificates issued by one of the Accredited Certification Bodies (CB) are accepted world-wide.
The applying organization is assessed based on an extensive sample of its sites, functions, products, services, and processes and a list of problems ("action
requests" or "non-compliances") made known to the management. If there are no
major problems on this list, the certification body will issue an ISO 9001 certificate for each geographical site it has visited, once it receives a satisfactory improvement plan from the management showing how any problems will be resolved.
An ISO certificate is not a once-and-for-all award, but must be renewed at regular intervals recommended by the certification body, usually around three years. In contrast to the Capability Maturity Model there are no grades of competence within ISO 9001.
However, there are various approaches which attempt to measure quality in a way that is not simply pass or fail, as is the case with ISO 9001. One such scheme is BSI Benchmark, which evaluates the progress of an organization's management system by measuring the degree of application of the eight management principles which underlie the ISO 9000 standards.
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Пояснения к тексту:
HL – Health Level (уровень здоровья)
STANDARDIZATION TRENDS RELATED TO HL7
As the "information society" spreads, computers are becoming widely used even in everyday life. Business systems previously operated independently have been connected to enable more speedy and accurate processing. Electronic governments and electronic regional governments or autonomous communities, etc. will trigger progress in society in which computers are ubiquitous and where these systems are connected to the basic social infrastructure. For the use of systems in a convenient "plug & play" manner, standardization of the protocols and interfaces between systems is essential. The standardization groups involved with a project need to know, first, the groups to which they themselves belong when participating in activities, to understand the ways in which their groups are associated with other groups, and whether or not the results have global influence and will be effectively connected to the policies and progress of each nation and business area. For example, the following items are required for the electronic patient records project.
For powerful promotion of activities, association with standardization organizations such as HL7 in close cooperation with other related groups, and association with complementary organizations is required. It is desirable to maintain these associations and do continuous cooperation while doing timely exchanges of information on the activity situation, supporting each other's reviews, projects, etc.
The method in which certain users or groups carry out projects aimed at globalization only after the application of advanced technology has gone well in specified fields makes it difficult to keep up with the speed of advances around the world, and also makes it difficult to connect with other users and groups. These users and groups require a precise understanding of their own positions, and must also be firmly involved in cooperation with various partners.
Points to consider are the promotion of electronic patient record projects, mainly summarizing cooperation with other organizations, particularly the distinctive features of standardization organizations, regarding the movements of the surrounding related standardization, centered on standardization related to medical treatment.
