4. Variable geometry

At the end of the spectrum, which envisages more permanent levels of variation within European integration, lies the model of a Europe of ‘variable geometry’. This option takes as its starting-point that there will inevitably be substantial differences between the integrative capacities and desires of twenty-five and more member states. It would be surprising if even in the long term these capacities and desires could fully converge. ‘Variable geometry’ therefore envisages a series of different policy areas for the European Union, all of which (apart from the single European market) would have varying membership. This would allow the varying approaches of the EU’s member states to such delicate subjects as monetary policy, foreign policy, defense and tax harmonization to be fully reflected in the policy areas they wished to join. While no country would be excluded from any policy area, it would be fully understood that some countries might never decide to share particular parts of their sovereignty. ‘Variable geometry’ would allow them that option, without inhibiting those who took a different view.

As a concept, ‘variable geometry’ is capable of a number of different expressions. One extreme would be the case in which most member states participated in all European policy areas and only a few opted out of one or other policy area for specific national, historic or cultural reasons. The opposite extreme would be that in which almost no member state participated in all policy areas and many member states had opted out of a wide range of policy areas. The first extreme is not very different from the original unified concept of the Treaty of Rome. The latter would be very near to the blueprint of ‘Europe à la carte’, which is a denial of, not a model for further European integration, flexible or otherwise.

Test 2 Modern system of International Relations in apr

Ex.1 Translate into English:

АСЕАН

Ассоциация стран юго-восточной Азии, АСЕАН (Association of South East Nations, ASEAN) – региональная организация стран Юго-Восточной Азии. Образована в 1967. Включает 10 стран (Индонезия, Малайзия, Сингапур, Таиланд, Филиппины, Бруней (1984), Вьетнам (1995), Лаос (1997), Мьянма (1997), Камбоджа (1999)).

Высшим органом АСЕАН являются встречи глав государств и правительств. Руководящим и координирующим органом служат ежегодные совещания министров иностранных дел. Руководство повседневной деятельностью АСЕАН осуществляет Постоянный комитет под председательством министра иностранных дел страны-устроительницы очередного совещания министров иностранных дел. В Джакарте заседает постоянный Секретариат во главе с Генеральным секретарем АСЕАН.

Ассоциация была создана по решению конференции министров иностранных дел Индонезии, Малайзии, Сингапура, Таиланда и Филиппин 8 августа 1967 в Бангкоке. В принятой Декларации АСЕАН ставились следующие цели:

• ускорение экономического развития, социального и культурного прогресса стран Юго-Восточной Азии (ЮВА);

• укрепление мира и региональной стабильности;

• расширение активного сотрудничества и взаимопомощи в области экономики, культуры, науки, техники и подготовки кадров;

• развитие более эффективного сотрудничества в сфере промышленности и сельского хозяйства;

• расширение взаимной торговли и повышение жизненного уровня граждан стран-участниц;

• установление прочного и взаимовыгодного сотрудничества с другими международными и региональными организациями.

В Декларации отмечалось, что АСЕАН открыта для всех стран Юго-Восточной Азии, признающих ее принципы, цели и задачи. Этим документом был зафиксирован статус ежегодной конференции министров иностранных дел как главного рабочего органа АСЕАН, правомочного принимать решения по реализации положений Декларации, обсуждать коренные проблемы деятельности Ассоциации, решать вопросы приема новых членов.

Ex.2 Insert the missing words:

government summit reduction

transparency group agenda prosperity

organization assistance

APEC

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a 1) ______ of Pacific Rim countries who meet with the purpose of improving economic and political ties. The first meeting was held in Canberra, Australia from November 5 to November 7, 1989, at ministerial level. This meeting supposed the start of the 2) ______. It holds annual meetings in each of the member countries and has standing committees on a wide range of issues, from communications to fisheries.

Each year, the heads of 3) ______ of each of the member states (except for Taiwan, also known as the Republic of China, whose leader is banned under PRC pressure and must send a non-governmental envoy) meet in a 4) ______ rotating in location among the member states.

The first APEC Leaders' Meeting occurred in 1993 when U.S. President Bill Clinton, seeing it as a crucial vehicle to bring the derailed Uruguay Round of trade talks back on track, invited member economies' leaders to Blake Island, Washington. At Blake Island, Leaders called for continued 5) ______ of trade and investment barriers, envisioning an "Asia-Pacific community" that promotes 6) ______ through cooperation. APEC's headquarter is located in Singapore.

APEC's stated "Bogor Goals" adopted in 1994 at the Bogor summit are aimed at free and open trade and investments by cutting tariffs between zero to five percent in the Asia-Pacific area for industrialised economies by 2010 and for developing economies by 2020.

In 1995, APEC established a business advisory body, called the APEC Business Advisory Council (ABAC), which consists of three business executives from each member economy.

In 1997 the APEC summit was in Vancouver, British Columbia. Great controversy arose when RCMP officers used pepper spray against protesters protesting against the presence of dictators such as Indonesia's president Suharto.

In the 2001 summit in Shanghai, APEC's push for a new trade Round and support for a program of trade capacity-building 7) ______ led to the successful launch of the Doha Development Agenda a few weeks later. Leaders also endorsed the U.S.-proposed 'Shanghai Accord' which emphasizes implementation of APEC's commitments to open markets, structural reform, and capacity building. As part of the accord, leaders committed to develop and implement APEC 8) ______ standards, reduce trade transaction costs in the Asia-Pacific region by 5 percent over 5 years, and pursue trade liberalization policies relating to information technology goods and services.

In 2003, Jemaah Islamiah head Riduan Isamuddin, a.k.a. Hambali, was planning an attack against the October 2003 APEC summit in Bangkok. He was captured in the city of Ayutthaya, Thailand, near Bangkok by Thai Police on August 11, 2003, before he could finish planning his attack on the APEC summit.

In 2004, Chile became the first South American nation to host the summit. The 9) ______ of the APEC 2004 year was focused on terrorism and commerce, small and medium enterprise development and contemplation of Free Trade Agreements and Regional Trade Agreements.

Ex.3 Formulate questions from every paragraph in the text: