Feminist perspectives

One effect of the feminist movement has been an increase in sociological studies directed specifically at the roles of women in society in general and in the family and marriage in particular. The American sociologist Jessie Bernard, for instance, argued that the study of marriage must focus both on husbands' and on wives' expectations and achievements. She noted that married men are generally more successful than single men in achieving their goals in life, whereas the opposite is true for modern married and unmarried women. This view contradicts that of Young and Willmott, who saw the modern symmetrical family as a step toward greater equality and similarity of roles between husband and wife. Much of the data Bernard cited was psychological: American wives are known to be much more prone to anxiety and depression than their husbands, and this, she argued, reflects the unfairness in marital roles as conceived in American society.

Ann Oakley made a similar case for Britain. She examined the changing roles of women since the Industrial Revolution and, in particular, the emergence of a new status of woman as housewife. Oakley, and many others in feminist circles, have regarded the role of housewife as degrading to women in that it prevents them from achieving economic and social independence on the same basis as men.

Another effect of the feminist movement has been a greater awareness in society as a whole of a double standard in sexual behaviour and a growing feeling that such a standard is unfair to women. Under this code of conduct it is permissible for men to engage in premarital and, to some extent, even extramarital sexual intercourse, while women are expected to remain chaste before marriage and faithful to their husbands afterward. This double standard and its inherent assumption of sexual inequality is a cause of concern for many women.

Separation and divorce

In most societies, it is possible to end marriage through divorce. Even where divorce is not permitted, separation may be allowed, either on a de facto basis or as a legally defined status. In many Western countries, marital separation is often thought to be a relatively new problem. Certainly divorce was much more difficult, for example, in early 19th-century England (when it required an act of Parliament for each divorce granted) than it is in England today.

Religion is a major factor governing the availability of divorce. In some religions, such as Islām, marriage is regarded as a contract between two parties rather than as a union intended for life and blessed by God; the Qurān states that it is better to divorce than to live in an unhappy marriage, and in Islām divorce is available to the man simply by the repetition of a verbal formula three times. In many Christian countries—in particular, Roman Catholic countries—divorce is difficult to obtain. Marriage is regarded by the church as ordained by God and thus as indissoluble. In Italy, for example, divorce has been permitted by law since 1970, but the church does not recognize the legitimacy of civil divorce. Thus, couples frequently separate and live apart. In fact, five years of continued separation are required before a civil divorce can be granted, and even after this period couples do not necessarily obtain a divorce. In the Orthodox churches, divorce is permitted, but, as in Roman Catholic countries, divorces granted in civil courts are not necessarily recognized by the church. Thus, in countries such as Greece or Russia or among members of the Orthodox faith in emigrant communities, couples must seek separate divorces from the church independently of civil divorces granted by government authorities.