4. H e combinability of words

As already mentioned, only those combinations of words (or single

words) which convey communication are sentences — the object of

syntax. All other combinations of words regularly formed in the process of speech are the object of morphology as well as single words.

Like separate words they name things, phenomena, actions, qualities,

etc., but in a complex way, for example: manners and table manners,

blue and dark blue, speak and speak loudly. Like separate words they

serve as building material for sentences.

h e combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings,

not their forms. h erefore not every sequence of words may be regarded

Lexeme 1 Lexeme 2

Grammeme 1 boy girl common case, singular number

Grammeme 2 boy’s girl’s possessive case, singular number

Grammeme 3 boys girls common case, plural number

Grammeme 4 boys’ girls’ possessive case, plural number

male, child,

son, male,

servant, etc.

female, child,

daughter, maid

servant, etc.

meanings of

lexemes

meanings of

grammemes21

as a combination of words. In the sentence Frankly, my friend, I have told

you the truth neither Frankly, my friend nor friend, I … are combinations

of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them.

On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word combination without breaking it. Compare:

a) read books;

b) read many books;

c) read very many books.

In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted. In cases

(b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous (read … books).

h e combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical

and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to lexical meanings of

the corresponding lexemes that the word hot can be combined with

the words water, temper, news, dog and is hardly combinable with the

words ice, square, information, cat.

h e lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in runner (a noun) and

-ly in quickly (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words

from forming a combination, whereas quick runner and run quickly

are regular word combinations.

h e combination *students writes is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes (Remark: with “*”

we mark grammatically incorrect word-combinations or sentences).

h us one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and

parts of speech.

Each word belonging to a certain part of speech is characterized by

valency (валентність) or, in other words, the combinability of lexical

units. For example, in the sentence I tell you a joke the verb tell is two

valent, and in the sentence I will tell you a joke about a Scotchman —

three valent. We can also say that modal verbs are valent for ini nitives

and not valent for gerunds, e.g. I can’t sing; nouns are valent for an

article, e.g. a (the) table, that is modal verbs are combined with ini nitives not gerunds, and nouns are practically the only part of speech

that can be combined with articles.22

It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and let -hand connections or combinability. In the combination my friend the word my has

a right-hand connection with the word friend and the latter has a let -

hand connection with the word my.

With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has already done the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with

the verb.

It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral combinability (одностороння, двостороння та багатосто роння

сполучуваність). For instance, we may say that the articles in English

have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the boy. Such

linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link verbs and modal verbs

are characterized by bilateral combinability: book of John, John and Marry,

this is John, the boy must leave. Most verbs may have:

• zero (Go!),

• unilateral (boys ← jump),

• bilateral (I ← did → it),

• and multilateral (Yesterday I ← saw → him there) connections.

In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.

One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the

combination Look at him the connection between look and at, between

at and him are direct, whereas the connection between look and him is

indirect, through the preposition at [25; 28–31].

5. h e notions of grammatical opposition

and grammatical category

h ere is essential dif erence in the way lexical and grammatical meanings exist in the language and occur in speech. Lexical meanings can

be found in a bunch only in a dictionary or in a memory of a man,

or, scientii cally, in the lexical system of a language. In actual speech a

lexical morpheme displays only one meaning of the bunch in each case, 23

and that meaning is singled out by the context or the situation of speech

(in grammar terms, syntagmatically). As mentioned already, words of

the same lexeme convey dif erent meanings in dif erent surroundings.

h e meanings of a grammatical morpheme always come together in

the word. In accordance with their relative nature they can be singled

out only relatively in contrast to the meanings of other grammatical

morphemes (in grammar terms, paradigmatically).

Supposing we want to single out the meaning of “non-continuous

aspect” in the word runs. We have then to i nd another word which

has all the meanings of the word runs except that of “non-continuous

aspect”. h e only word that meets these requirements is the analytical

word is running. Run and is running belong to the same lexeme and

their lexical meanings are identical. As to the grammatical meanings

the two words do not dif er in tense (“present”), number (“singular”),

person (“third”), mood (“indicative”), etc. h ey dif er only in aspect.

h e word runs has the meaning of “non-continuous aspect” and is

running — that of “continuous aspect”.

When opposed, the two words, runs and is running, form a particular

language unit. All their meanings but those of aspect counter balance one

another and do not count. Only the two particular meanings of “noncontinuous” and “continuous” aspect united by the general meaning

of “aspect” are revealed in this opposition or opposeme. h e general

meaning of this opposeme (“aspect”) manifests itself in the two particular meanings (“non-continuous aspect” and “continuous aspect”)

of the opposite members (or opposites) [25; 22–24].

h us, the elements which the opposition/opposeme is composed of

are called opposites or members of the opposition. Opposites can be

dif erent: 1) non-marked, 2) marked. Compare the pair of noun forms

table — tables. Together they create the “number” opposeme, where

table represents the singular number expressed by a zero morpheme

that is why it is called the non-marked member of the opposition, and

tables — the plural number expressed by the positive morpheme -s is

called the marked member of the opposition. Non-marked opposite is

used more ot en than the marked opposite is. h e marked opposite is

peculiar by its limited use.24

Ferdinand de Saussure claimed that everything in language is based

on opposition. On phonetic level we have opposition of sounds. On all

levels of language we have opposition. Any grammatical form has got its

contrast or counterpart. Together they make up a grammatical category.

A part of speech is characterized by its grammatical categories

manifested in the opposemes (the elements of the opposi tion  —

опозема, член опозиції) and paradigms of its lexemes. Nouns have

the categories of number and case. Verbs possess the categories of

tense, voice, mood etc. h at is why paradigms belonging to dif erent

parts of speech are dif erent. h e paradigm of a verb lexeme is long:

write, writes, wrote, will write, is writing etc. h e paradigm of a noun

lexeme is much shorter: sister, sister’s, sisters, sisters’. h e paradigm of

an adjective lexeme is still shorter: cold, colder, coldest. h e paradigm

of an adverb always consists only of one word.

h us, the paradigm of a lexeme shows what part of speech the lexeme belongs to.