6.1.1. Metaphor

Various objects, phenomena, actions, etc. may possess similar features, which provides the possibility of transference of meaning on the basis of similarity and association, i.e. metaphor. When likeness is observed between in inanimate objects and human qualities, we speak of personification. Metaphor expresses the interrelation between the logical contextual meaning of a word which is based on a likeness between objects and implies analogy and comparison between them.

Metaphor is the expression of a writer's individual vision. It is through metaphor that writers and poets most frequently, though not exclusively, reveal their personal, highly individual and emotional attitude towards life. The metaphor suggests an analogy. An implied analogy and likeness to concrete objects makes abstract ideas more comprehensible.

The stylistic function of metaphor is twofold - as by evoking images and suggesting analogies it makes the author's thought more concrete and clear, and, at the same time, it reveals the author's emotional attitude towards his subject.

Metaphor can be expressed by all nominal parts of speech. The most complete identification of the associated phenomena is achieved in verb-metaphors:

Verb-metaphor: He opened "The Times" and barricaded behind it. (Galsworthy, the man of Property).

Noun-metaphor: The sweet smiling face of the river (Jerome)

Metaphors expressed by adjectives and adverbs are called metaphorical epithets:

Eg. Morris listened hungrily (Prichard)

Sometimes metaphor is not limited to one image. The writer finds it necessary to prolong it. He does so by adding a number of other images, but all of these additional images are linked with the main central image. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged. In this case a group of metaphors is clustered around the same image to make it more vivid and complete.

Ex. Mr. Dombey 's cup of satisfaction was so full, that he felt he could afford a drop or two of its contents, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little daughter. (Dickens)

The metaphors "drop", "contents", "to sprinkle" are connected with the main image expressed by the words "a cup of satisfaction". This device helps the writer to achieve a prolonged and vivid image.

6.1.2. Personification

Personification is the presentation of a phenomenon or an idea as a human being. This device is usually achieved by ascribing actions and qualities characteristic of people to the thing described. There may be different degrees of personification. A thing or idea may be fully personified, that is, the actions and qualities that are typical of human beings may be ascribed to it. On the other hand, a thing or idea may be partially personified, i.e. in some aspects it retains its own qualities.

Example: The Face of London was now strangely altered...

Mother Nature always blushes before disrobing.

6.1.3. Metonymy

Metonymy is based on a definite relation between the object implied and the object named.

Ex. As the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should be the last.

The word 'sword' is an expression of metonymy. Besides its logical meaning, this word acquired a contextual meaning - that of military action, repression. The interaction between the logical meaning of the word 'sword" and its contextual meaning is obvious. It is based on the relation between the instrument and the action performed by it. The most common types of relations, i.e. the most frequent types of metonymy, are:

1) The relations that exist between an object and the material out of which it is made.

2) The relations that exist between the instrument and the action it performs; or between a part of the body and its functions: ex. "The pen is stronger than the sward'.

3) The relations that exist between the symbol and the phenomenon it symbolizes: example. "From the cradle to the grave".

4) The relation that exists between the part and the whole, or the singular and the plural. This type of metonymy is called synechdochy.

Like all other stylistic devices metonymy may be genuine and trite. Since the types of relations between two objects can be finally limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy in most cases is trite (to earn one's bread, to live by the pen, to keep one's mouth shut, the crown for the king, he has no roof over his head, etc.). In the English language a number of trite metonymies are widely used. The stylistic effect of metonymies of this type is weak. So called linguistic metonymies, can not be regarded as stylistic devices, ex "hands are wanted".

Metonymy as a stylistic device is used to achieve concreteness of description. No matter what type of metonymy is employed, it tends to make abstract ideas more concrete and life-like image. By giving a specific detail connected with the phenomenon, the author evokes a concrete and life-like image.