Chapter 12. Translation studies and grammar (cont.)

12.1. Passive voice forms in translation

The authors of English grammars define the grammatical category of voice as the form of the verb that serves to show whether the subject of the sentence is the agent or the object of the action expressed by the predicate verb (Ye.M.Gordon, I.P.Krylova). This grammatical category is found both in English and in Russian, though there is no complete coincidence in the character of the verbs used in voice forms, their functions and uses in the two languages, therefore the voice category in English and Russian refers to cases of partial coincidence.

Most obvious translation difficulties arise when dealing with English passive voice structures which are defined as syntactical structures in which the verb is used in the passive voice. These difficulties are mainly due to a number of dissimilarities between English and Russian passive voice forms:

1. in the character of the verbs that admit of passive voice forms – in Russian passive voice forms are possible only with most transitive verbs, i.e. verbs which are followed by a direct object expressed by a noun in the accusative case [Русская грамматика 1982]. In English there are few restrictions connected with the character of the verbs that can be used in the passive voice forms. Apart from transitive verbs, many intransitive verbs including those followed by indirect or prepositional objects can be used in the passive voice, e.g. He was offered a well-paid job (to offer smb smth). An interpreter was sent for (to send for smb). Besides, V.G. Gack points out an important feature of English which is that many intransitive verbs develop transitive meanings which call for a direct object, and admit of passive voice form, cf. to fly – to fly a plane; to run – to run a hotel.

2. In the functions of English and Russian passive voice forms:

2.1. English prefers passive voice forms in sentences where a person or an object of reality in the position of the subject is acted upon, e.g. This bridge was built by the workers of our factory. In a similar situation Russian favours an active voice form of the predicate verb which is preceded by a direct object and followed by the subject, e.g. Этот мост построили рабочие нашего завода.

2.2. predicate verbs used in the active voice in Russian indefinite-personal sentences when the subject denotes a beneficiary of an action correspond to English passive voice form of the verb, cf. Многим малоимущим семьям вместо пособий выплачивают денежные компенсации. – Many low-income families are paid cash subsidies that replaced social benefits.

2.3. Russian predicate verbs of speaking and judgement which are used in the third person plural (полагают, считают, передают и т.д.) usually correlate with English passive voice forms of the same verbs, cf. Как сообщают, активы компании увеличились вдвое за прошедние шесть месяцев. – The assets of the company are reported to have doubled over the last six months.

2.4. English admits of passive voice structures in which the subject performs a greater variety of semantic roles as compared to the Russian passive subject with a restricted meaning – that of indicating the object being acted upon. In English the passive voice subject may serve to express the following meanings:

a) point at the agent of the verbal action, e.g. In 1975 Anderson was appointed the first EEC delegate in Southern Africa.

b) indicate the recipient of an action, e.g. The child was given lots of Christmas presents.

c) show the locality of an action, e.g. The bed was not slept in at night.

d) stress the effect of some event on smth (affected subject), e.g. My car was broken into last night.

e) indicate the event (eventive subject), e.g. The summit was given a wide coverage both at home and abroad.

f) describe the resultant state, e.g. I’m shocked to hear it.

g) be used as a dummy subject, i.e. a semantically empty subject when the agent of the action is not mentioned, e.g. It was arranged that we should lunch after the plenary session.

3. in the uses of English and Russian passive voice constructions – in English passive constructions are frequently used in three spheres:

• academic prose, where they enable to express logical relations and report findings (they occur 100 times per million words, according to D. Biber’s counts),

• in news, especially to report negative events, e.g. He was jailed for three months (the number is 40 times per million words) and

• in conversation where they tend to be stative in their meaning, e.g. Most of the garden will be finished one day (occurring like in news 40 times per million words).

In Russian there are many other means available which are used alongside passive voice with similar meanings and which restrict the uses of passive voice to written official register mostly.

Translation practice shows that there are basically two types of correlation of English and Russian passive voice constructions:

Type I – the English verb in the passive voice corresponds to a Russian transitive verb, cf. The letter was written by an anonymous writer. – Письмо было написано анонимом. In such cases a translator should treat English-Russian correspondences with great care because there may be a number of differences between them:

1. stylistic - as for the reasons stated above Russian passive voice forms produce a bookish effect and sound formal and official compared to corresponding English forms, cf. The door was ornamented by a small brass sign (Th. Dreiser) – На ней красовалась медная дощечка.

2. Logical – the difference in the logical relations expressed through passive and active voice forms. An English passive voice form stresses the recipient of the action turning it into the subject of the sentence and at the same time emphasizes the agent of the action mentioning it in the by-phrase, while in Russian a similar stress is achieved in an active voice construction, cf. The World Forum was attended by members of all European economiс communities – На Всемирном форуме были представители всех стран Европейского экономического сообщества.

3. Speech norms of the SL and TL – the difference in the forms used as homogeneous predicates, as Russian unlike English tends to use parallel structures, both should be either in active or passive voice forms, while English favours contrasted active and passive forms of homogeneous predicates, cf. It would have damaged Anglo-American relations, the Minister would have been upset (Gr. Greene) – Ведь, это нанесло бы вред англо-американским отношениям и расстроило бы посланника.

Type II correlation – the English verb in the passive voice form corresponds to a Russian intransitive verb which does not admit of the passive voice form. Such cases are by far more numerous than the previous type and a translator has to resort to various means available in Russian when translation is made from English. To such means refer:

• an active voice form, e.g. Then some word was sent around (Th. Dreiser). – Лишь тогда кто-то дал знать мастеру.

• indefinite personal sentences, e.g. His remarks were taken no notice of. – На его замечания не обратили внимания.

• indefinite personal sentences with verbs of speaking and believing used in the third person plural, e.g. The Bologna Accord is reported to have been signed in 1999 at first by 29t European countries. – Как передают, вначале Болонское Соглашение подписали в 1999 году двадцать девять европейских государств.

• infinitive sentences, e.g. Nothing is to be heard. – Ничего не слыхать.

• verbs with the reflexive ending -ся , e.g. The film is being shot on the Black Sea coast. – Фильм снимается на черноморском побережье.

• impersonal sentences with a predicate expressed by a curtailed form of an adjective or participle, e.g. He has been ordered to return. – Ему приказано вернуться.

• impersonal sentences containing some modal verbs, e.g. These drawbacks must be done away with. – С этими недостатками нужно покончить.