
- •Table of Contents
- •Preface
- •Translation theory Chapter 1. Historical overview of translation
- •1.1. The notion of translation theory
- •1.2. Trends in the development of translation theory
- •1.3. Branches in translation studies
- •The map of translation
- •1.4. The object of investigation, aims and tasks of linguistic translation theory. Methods of analysis
- •Chapter 2. Contrastive linguistics and translation studies
- •2.1. Interconnection of contrastive linguistics and translation studies
- •2.2. Major points of difference between contrastive linguistics and translation studies
- •2.3. Levels of comparative translation studies
- •Chapter 3. Theoretical models of translation
- •3.1. Models based on componential analysis
- •3.2. Sense-text model of translation
- •3.3. Situational models of translation
- •3.4. Pragmatic models of translation
- •3.5. Cultural-semiotic and cognitive models of translation
- •Chapter 4. Basic notions and categories of linguistic translation theory
- •4.1. The notion of translation
- •4.2. Typology of translation
- •4.3. The problem of the unit of translation
- •Chapter 5. Equivalence and adequacy of translation
- •5.1. Equivalence and adequacy of translation: points of difference
- •5.2. The problem of translatability
- •5.3. Adequate translation and the role of context
- •Chapter 6. Transformations in Translation
- •6.1. Translation transformations: definition, causes, classification
- •6.2. Levels of translation transformations, operations and techniques of translation
- •6.3. Classification of translation transformations according to techniques of translation
- •Chapter 7. Translation theory and lexis
- •7.1. Main types of semantic correlation of English and Russian words
- •7.2. The notion of lexical correspondences. The theory of regular correspondences by Ya.I.Retsker
- •7.2.1. Equivalent correspondences: definition, classification, types of equivalents
- •7.2.2. Variant correspondences: definition and the difference between variant correspondences and partial equivalents
- •7.2.3. Contextual correspondences: definition and types of contextual correspondences
- •7.3. Analogues as a special type of lexical correspondences. Drawbacks of translation analogues
- •Chapter 8. Translation studies and lexis (cont.)
- •8.1. Lexical problems of translation at word level
- •8.2. Translation of words having no equivalents in tl
- •8.3. Problems of translating neologisms
- •Chapter 9. Translation studies and lexis (cont.)
- •9.1. Ways of rendering proper names
- •9.2. International and pseudo-international words in translation
- •9.3. Translation of terms
- •Chapter 10. Translation studies and lexis (cont.)
- •10.1. Lexical problems of translation at word-group level
- •10.2. Problems of translating phraseological units
- •10.3. Modality in translation
- •Chapter 11. Translation studies and grammar
- •11.1. Two levels of grammatical problems of translation
- •11.2. Grammatical divergences of English and Russian
- •11.3. Translation problems at textual level
- •Chapter 12. Translation studies and grammar (cont.)
- •12.1. Passive voice forms in translation
- •12.2. Problems of rendering word order in translation
- •12.3. Ways of rendering tense-aspect forms
- •Chapter 13. Translation studies and grammar (cont.)
- •13.1. Ways of rendering the English article(s) in Russian translation
- •13.2. Problems of translating English absolute nominative constructions into Russian
- •13.3. Rendering Russian verbal adverb phrases in English
- •Chapter 14. Translation studies and style
- •14.1. Rendering newspaper headlines
- •14.2. Grammatical peculiarities of translating newspaper articles
- •Who?- (did) what? (how?) where? when?-why?
- •14.3. Lexico-phraseological and stylistic peculiarities of translating newspaper articles
- •Part II. Workshop in translation Unit # 1. Basic notions of translation studies Points for discussion
- •1. Read and compare the following Russian and English texts: analyse the units of translation chosen on different levels
- •Unit # 2. Translation correspondences Points for discussion
- •1. Translate the following text into Russian. Find and write out units of translation which have been translated by different types of lexical correspondences.
- •3. Translate the following sentences into English using appropriate correspondences
- •Unit # 3. Transformations in translation Points for discussion
- •I. Compare the following slt and tlt, state the types of all transformations made in translation
- •II.Translate into Russian making the necessary changes
- •III. Translate into English making use of appropriate transformations
- •Unit # 4. Lexical problems of translation Points for discussion
- •I. Suggest, where possible, different ways of translating the following proper names into Russian
- •II. Translate the following sentences into English. Explain the ways of translating words and word-groups having no correspondences in tl.
- •III. Translate the following sentences from English into Russian, analyse the ways of translating neologisms.
- •IV. Translate different kinds of shortened names:
- •V. Translate the following groups of “cultural words” and phrases:
- •Unit # 5. Lexical problems of translation (cont.) Points for discussion
- •I. Think of the ways of translating into English nationally specific Russian phraseological units:
- •II. Offer variants of translating the following terms:
- •III. Translate the text from English into Russian; qualify the underlined terms as international words proper and pseudointernational words:
- •IV. Translate into Russian the English headlines paying attention to premodified noun phrases:
- •V. Discuss different ways of rendering in Russian the imagery component of the following English phraseological units:
- •VI. Think of the ways of translating nationally specific Russian phraseological unis:
- •Unit # 6. Grammatical problems of translation (cont.)
- •1. Compare the following slt and tlt, find cases of different grammatical divergences and analyse the ways of their rendering
- •II. Compare the Russian slTs and English tlTs. Discuss levels of eguivalence achieved in various cases:
- •III. State the type and genre of the following texts, translate them into Russian/English, discuss translation problems at textual level
- •Please have your boarding pass ready
- •In return we offer varied interesting work which includes dealing with
- •33 Cambridge Gardens Hastings East Sussex
- •Unit # 7. Grammatical problems of translation (cont.) Points for discussion
- •I. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to Absolute Nominative constructions
- •II. Translate the following sentences into English, identify the means of compensating for Russian verbal adverb phrases
- •III. Translate the sentences into Russian using various means available in tl to make up for the English articles
- •IV. Translate specific English structures into Russian
- •Unit # 8. Grammatical problems of translation (cont.) Points for discussion
- •1. Translate the following texts into Russian paying attention to Passive voice structures:
- •II. Translate the following sentences into English /Russian, explain the ways of rendering tense-aspect forms:
- •III. Translate the following into English/Russian, state the ways of dealing with modality:
- •Unit # 9. Problems of style in translation
- •I. Suggest ways of translating English headlines:
- •IV. Compare the variants and choose the better of the two:
- •V.Translate into Russian the following abbreviations, state the types of tl correspondences
- •Unit # 10. Stylistic devices and expressive means in translation Points for discussion
- •I. Identify expressive means and stylistic devices in slTs and render them in English/Russian
- •II. Render the text in English, discuss transformations made to compensate for its stylistic features
- •III. Translate into English rendering properly imagery components of Russian lexical units:
- •IV. Compare the ways of rendering connotational properties of the English zoonames in Russian. Which of them do you find the most appropriate? Give your reasons.
- •V. Translate into English retaining the emotional effect of the means of creating emphasis in slTs
- •Part III sample tests test # 1: Lexical problems of translation
- •I. Translate into English. Explain the ways of translating phraseological units:
- •III. Translate the text into Russian. Find 3 examples of international words and 3 examples of pseudointernational words. Illustrate the differences in the latter case.
- •Test # 2: Lexical problems of translation
- •III. Translate the text into Russian. Find 3 examples of international words and 3 examples of pseudointernational words. Illustrate the differences in the latter case:
- •IV. Translate the following sentences into English/Russain. State the ways of translating terms:
- •V. Translate into Russian using and stating the types of transformations:
- •VII. Translate the text into Russian, write out examples of different types of tl correspondences:
- •Test # 3: Grammatical problems of translation
- •I. Translate the following text into Russian, state the types of grammatical transformations used and explain their causes
- •II. Render the following sentences in English paying attention to compensatory means to make up for grammatical divergences:
- •III. Translate the sentences into Russian choosing means available in tl instead of the English article(s).
- •IV. Translate the text into Russian focusing on English attributive groups.
- •V. Render the sentences in Russian paying attention to English adverbial verbs
- •VI. Translate the following sentences into Russian using various compensatory means for Passive voice structures
- •Test # 4: Final Revision Test
- •I. Translate the text into Russian, analyse ways of translating terms
- •II. Translate into Russian the newspaper article, state different types of transformations used in translation
- •III. Render the following sentences in English, discuss the ways of rendering cultural words
- •IV. Translate the text into Russian, analyse the ways of rendering grammatical lacoonae
- •Test # 5: Final Revision Test
- •I. Render the following Russian/English headlines in English/ Russian, discuss transformations made in translation
- •II. Translate “cultural” terms into Russian, analyse the ways of their compensation
- •III. Translate into English paying attention to new Russsian coinages
- •IV. Translate the text into Russian, write out examples of different kinds of lexical correspondences
- •VI. Translate the follwing sentences into English/Russian, state the ways of translating terms
- •VII. Translate into English. Explain the ways of translating phraseological units
- •Appendix I
- •I. Study the scheme of translation analysis of a tlt, discuss the main requirements set for evaluating the quality of a translation text: scheme of translation analysis of a tlt
- •II. Compare the following English/Russian texts and their translations, make the translation analysis of the tlTs applying the scheme given above
- •1. Balance sheet layout
- •III. Translate the following texts from Russian /English into English/Russian. Make the translation analysis of the tlTs according to the points of the scheme relevant for the texts.
- •Compare the following definitions of translation offered by Russian and foreign scholars. Choose the one(s) that you like best giving your reasons
- •Requisites for Professional Translators
- •Competence in translation: a complex skill, how to study and how to teach it
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Lexicographic sources
- •List of fiction
9.2. International and pseudo-international words in translation
International words are defined as words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source (I.V.Arnold, R.S.Ginzburgh, etc). Research into this category of words has revealed that it is not homogeneous and alongside true international words there are several groups of words which coincide only in their outer form, but not in meaning. They are qualified as pseudo-international words, false equivalents and misleading words of foreign origin. Disregard of this category of words may cause mistakes in translation so it is natural that not only special numerous papers are devoted to this problem, in recent years there have been published several dictionaries that collect related words in different languages. P. Palazhchenko, a well-known translator and interpreter, has collected in his dictionary «Мой несистематический словарь» (2003) cases of divergences in related English and Russian words that are often neglected and thus result in translation errors. As an example we can refer to the words aggressive – агрессивный. The English word has positive connotations: very determined to win or be successful; assertive; forceful. Its Russian counterpart was initially devoid of positive connotations, but now we are witnessing changes in it under the influence of English as combinations like агрессивная кампания, агрессивная реклама become loaded with positive evaluations.
The most well known dictionaries in this country which compare English and Russian related units are: V.V. Akulenko ‘English-Russian and Russian-English Dictionary of Misleading Words, M., 1969; L.I. Borisova ‘Misleading Words. General scientific lexis, M., 2002; A.I. Pakhotin “English-Russian and Russian-English Dictionary of Translators’ False Friends”, 2003. The dictionary by L.I. Borisova is restricted to terms, the approach adopted in the dictionary by A.I. Pakhotin is too broad as he compares words at random that are not related in origin, cf. solid – солидный. Of great theoretical interest and practical help is the dictionary compiled by V.V. Akulenko.
V.V.Akulenko singles out three groups of related words in English and in Russian which may be referred to misleading words:
inter-language relative synonyms,
inter-language homonyms,
inter-language paronyms [Акуленко 1969: 371-372].
Inter-language relative synonyms coincide partially in their meaning and usage, inter-language homonyms coincide in their sound or graphic form, but have different meanings, inter-language paronyms are partially alike in their form, but they arouse false associations in meaning though they are different in that respect. The author does not accept the term ‘deceptive cognates’ suggested by R. Lado instead of the word- combination ‘misleading words of foreign origin’ as it is clear from the above definitions that not all groups are related in their origin.
V.V.Akulenko collected in his dictionary 900 pairs of English and Russian misleading words of various types. On the basis of the analysis of related words the author establishes the following kinds of discrepancies between them:
a) inter-language relative synonyms that may have the following points of difference:
the difference in the denotational component of meaning, e.g. депо – depot. The English word has four meanings: 1) storehouse for goods, 2) a place where military stores are kept and new soldiers are trained, 3) a railway station, usu small, or a bus station, 4) a place where buses are kept and not repaired, a bus garage. The Russian counterpart has a slightly different set of meanings that correspond to the English: shed, roundhouse; fire-station (for the word-combination пожарное депо).
the difference in combinability: absolutely – абсолютно, cf. to absolutely agree with – согласиться без возражений; to vanish absolutely – полностью исчезнуть.
the difference in the connotational component, cf. consultation (styl. neutral) and консультация (bookish); compilation (neutral) – компиляция (negative);
b) inter-language homonyms the meanings of which have nothing in common as they appear as a result of accidental coincidence, e.g. actual – актуальный (pressing, urgent, vital, of great contemporary interest, topical); translate – транслировать (to transmit, to broadcast, to relay);
c) inter-language paronyms have no common meanings despite their near identity in form, e.g. intelligent – интеллигентский. The Russian word has two meanings: 1) characteristic of intellectuals, 2) weak-willed, hesitating; while the English word means 1) clever, understanding, thoughtful; 2) smart, witty.
L.I.Borisova studied correlations of English and Russian pseudo-international words in scientific texts and established some regularities in their translation:
specialization of an English general scientific word, e.g. companion device – вспомогательное устройство; some styles – некоторые модели,
de-internationalization of an English word, e.g. compromise and its non-international translations into Russian, cf. the best compromise – оптимальное соотношение, as a compromise – в качестве промежуточного варианта; optimistic – завышенный, pessimistic – заниженный.
stylistic neutralization of an English general scientific word which is stylistically marked, e.g. microprocessor’s talents – потенциальные возможности микропроцессора; provocative – интересный, представляющий интерес .
Thus, the category of misleading words is of great theoretical and practical importance for translators and it should be given the utmost attention it deserves in order to avoid errors in the work of both experienced translators and beginners.