Independent elements of the sentence

Independent elements of the sentence are not grammatically dependent on any particular part of the sentence, they refer to the sentence as a whole. Only occasionally they may refer to a separate part of the sentence. The independent element may consist of a word or a phrase. Its position is more free than that of any other parts of the sentence and accordingly it may occur in different positions in the sentence.

There are two groups of independent elements (Fig. 139).

Fig. 139

A direct address is the name of a person (or occasionally a non-person) to whom the rest of the sentence is addressed. It may be emotionally charged or neutral, but semantically it does not influence the sentence.

According to the meaning the parenthesis may be of several types (Fig. 140).

Fig. 140

As a rule a parenthesis refers to the sentence (or clause) as a whole. Sometimes, however, a parenthesis refers only to, a secondary part of the sentence.

As to its morphological nature, a parenthesis can be expressed in different ways (Fig. 141).

Fig. 141

Composite sentence

The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines, i.e. it consists of two or more clauses. The composite sentence expresses a complicated act of thought, i.e. an act of mental activity which falls into two or more intellectual efforts closely combined with one another.

Composite sentences display two principal types of construction: hypotaxis (subordination) and parataxis (coordination) (Fig. 142).

Fig. 142

Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively (Fig. 143). Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank. Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon the other (or they are mutually dependent).

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Fig. 143

The means of combining clauses into a polypredicative sentence are divided into syndetic, I. E. Conjunctional, and asyndetic, I. E. Non-conjunctional (Fig. 144).

Fig. 144

Compound sentence

The compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination. Coordination can be expressed either syndetically or asyndetically.

A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination.

The main semantic feature of the compound sentence is that it follows the flow of thought; thus the content of each successive clause is related to the previous one. Hence come two syntactical features of the compound sentence which distinguish it from the complex sentence: 1) the opening clause mostly plays the leading role, and each successive clause is joined to the previous clause; 2) the clauses are sequentially fixed. Thus a coordinate clause cannot change place with the previous one without changing or distorting the meaning of the whole sentence

From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses four kinds of coordinate connection are distinguished: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causative-consecutive (Fig. 145). The type of connection is expressed not only by means of coordinating connectives, but also by the general meaning of clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content.

Copulative coordination implies that the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar. The connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also), as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, besides.

Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still, nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only. Adversative coordination may also be realized asyndetically.

Disjunctive coordination implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either... or, the conjunctive adverbs are else (or else), otherwise.

Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other – a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for.

Fig. 145

COMPLEX SENTENCE

The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The complex sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses — a principal one and a subordinate one.

The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either by a subordinating connector (subordinator), or, with some types of clauses, asyndetically.

Subordination is marked by some formal signals (Fig. 146). These formal signs may be conjunctions or connectives.

Fig. 146

Conjunctions are specialized formal devices (connectors) the only function of which is to link clauses and express the relation between them. They usually stand at the beginning of a subordinate clause. The only exception to this rule is the complex sentence with a concessive clause, where owing to partial inversion the conjunction may come second, after the word which is the focus of concessive meaning.

Connectives combine two functions – that of linking clauses and that of a part in the subordinate clause. Connectives are subdivided into conjunctive words (conjunctive subordinating pronouns and adverbs), which are used to join nominal clauses and relative words (pronouns and adverbs), used to join attributive clauses (Fig. 147). Some conjunctive and relative words coincide in form, and it is therefore necessary to give some criterion according to which the two types can be distinguished.

The difference between conjunctive words and relative words lies in their role within the sentence or clause. In the case of conjunctive words the choice is determined by the structure and meaning of the subordinate clause itself. In the case of relative words the choice depends on the antecedent in the main clause.