3.5. Attribute

When used as an attribute, the gerund is always preceded by a preposition, which is of in most cases. Very often the gerund modifies an abstract noun:

• She had a feeling of being surrounded by enemies.

• He does not stand a chance of winning.

• I considered the possibility of joining the Labour party.

• They give the impression of not working.

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Verbals

3.6. Adverbial modifier

In this function the gerund is also preceded by a preposition.

1) Adverbial modifier of time

The gerund follows the prepositions after, before, on, since: • They have not spoken a word since leaving the party.

• On closing the door she remembered that she had not turned off the light.

Note: On has the same meaning as when and emphasizes that the first event is not completed but overlaps the second.

2) Adverbial modifier of manner

The gerund is used with by and in:

• They escaped by sliding down a rope.

• The whole evening was spent in deciding whether to go or not.

3) Adverbial modifier of purpose

The gerund is introduced by for.

• It turned out that the suitcase had been used for carrying drugs.

4) Adverbial modifier of cause

The gerund is introduced by for fear of, owing to, for:

• They felt tired for having walked the whole day (formal, literary use).

• They did not mention it for fear of hurting her feelings.

5) Adverbial modifier of concession

The gerund is introduced by in spite of and despite (more formal):

• Despite spending her childhood in a village she does not know much about country life.

6) Adverbial modifier of condition

The gerund is introduced by without.

• You can't make an omelette without breaking eggs (a proverb).

7) Adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances

The gerund is introduced by without:

• She went by without looking up.

In all the above-mentioned functions we can find gerundial phrases, while a single gerund is rather rare.

The participles

1. Forms

Participle I: the forms of participle I coincide with those of the gerund:

INDEFINITE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE I: reading

• Coming into the room, she saw her brother.

PERFECT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE I: having read

• Having finished his homework, he could go out.

INDEFINITE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE I: being read

• The car being damaged, he couldn't continue the journey.

PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE I: having been read

• Having been insulted several times, she decided to put her foot down.

Participle I Perfect both Active and Passive is used when it is necessary to emphasize that the action expressed by the participle precedes the one expressed by the finite verb. Participle I Perfect is mostly used to express temporal and causal relationships. For more detail see Participle I: Functions.

Participle II of most verbs has only one form. If the verb is regular we add -ed (-d) to the infinitive: work — worked. Participle II of irregular verbs is their "third" form. It should be noted that some irregular verbs have two different forms of Participle II: awake: awaked/awoken show: showed/shown

burn: burned/burnt smell: smelled/smelt

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dream: dreamed/dreamt	speed: speeded/sped
hang: hanged/hung	spell: spelled/spelt
lean: leaned/leant	spill: spilled/spilt
leap: leaped/leapt	swell: swelled/swollen
learn: learned/learnt	tread: trodden/trod
light: lighted/lit	wake: waked/woken

mow: mowed/mown

Note also that the form hanged is used when hang means 'to kill somebody by tying a rope around their neck'.

Some verbs have different participle forms for verbal and adjectival use:

• You have drunk too much - a drunk /drunken sailor;

• He has shaved and washed - a clean-shaven man; - The trousers have shrunk - shrunken trousers;

• The ship has sunk - a sunken ship.