2.A Read the following text and do the tasks that follow. Teaching staff at uk universities and colleges

Men outnumber women in further and higher education teaching positions, especially in senior posts. In 1988-1989, there were four men to every woman at lecturer level, and 31 men to every woman at the level of professor in the British universities. The discrepancy is particularly great in the physical sciences and mathematics, where male lecturers outnumber female by ten to one, and male professors outnumber female by a 100 to one.

The main academic posts within universities are typically those described below, though there is a great deal of variation between universities.

The Chancellor is the titular head of a university, with a purely ceremonial function, notably in conferring degrees. He or she is usually a well-known public figure, who need not have any connection with the academic world (such as a member of the Royal Family). In the ancient Scottish universities, the chancellor is elected by the graduates.

The Pro chancellor is nominally a deputy to the chancellor (for whom he or she does sometimes stand in on ceremonial occasions, such as graduation ceremonies), the pro chancellor does have a substantial role, as chair of the council of a university, with overall responsibility for its financial and other non-academic affairs. It is usually a part-time appointment, often held by people distinguished in the world outside university, such as lawyers, etc.

The Vice chancellor (VC) again is nominally a deputy to the chancellor, but in reality is the chief academic and administrative officer of a university, in charge of its day-to-day running (though he or she does also stand in for the chancellor on ceremonial occasions). He or she controls and co-ordinates the activities of committees and planning boards, oversees the working of academic departments and liaises with outside bodies. This is a full-time appointment, and in most universities a permanent one, though some (notably Oxford, Cambridge and London) elect their vice chancellor for a period of several years at a time.

The Principal is the chief academic and administrative officer of a university, he or she is usually styled 'principal and vice chancellor', the latter title used when standing in for the chancellor on ceremonial occasions. (The University of London has both a principal and a vice chancellor.)

Some universities now have deputy or pro vice chancellors, who chair major committees and stand in for the vice chancellor. These posts are often held for a limited term by senior academic members of the university.

The Rector is the chair of the university court (the main finance committee) of one of the ancient Scottish universities. Elected by the students for a term of several years, rectors have been less exclusively drawn than most other senior officers of universities from 'establishment' circles: they have included a communist trade union leader and several television personalities. Most treat the position as purely ceremonial, but they can actively preside over their courts' proceedings if they choose, and in recent years a few have done so.

Master is a traditional title for the head of a college in Oxford and Cambridge Universities (and occasionally elsewhere.)

A dean is the head of a faculty, such as a faculty of science, or a faculty of arts. A deanship may be a permanent appointment, or a temporary one held for a limited term by senior academic members of the faculty. The duties and powers of deans vary from university to university.

The Professor is the highest purely academic appointment. Professors are responsible for conducting and promoting teaching and research in their subjects. A post of professor – known for historical reasons as a 'chair' – may be established or personal. An established chair is a permanent post in a university: when one occupant leaves it, another will normally be appointed in his or her place. A personal chair is conferred on a particular individual, usually for distinguished scholarship, research and published work, and continues only as long as his or her academic career. Traditionally, professors were the heads of academic departments. Often they still are, but in recent years it has become common for other senior academics to act as heads of departments, sometimes in rotation.

A reader engages in teaching and research. Like a personal chair, a readership is usually conferred on an individual for merit in scholarship, research and published work. In status, it lies between a professorship and a senior lectureship, but is equivalent to the latter in duties (and salary scale).

A senior lecturer engages in teaching and research. The criteria for promotion from lecturer are not clearly defined, but are generally concerned with qualities in teaching, research and, sometimes, administration. There is no sharp division of duties between senior lecturer and lecturer, but a senior lecturer is, in general, more likely than a lecturer to hold such posts as dean or head of department, or to chair university committees.

Lecturers engage in teaching and research. Despite their title, lecturers' teaching does not consist only, or even mainly, of giving lectures. They also hold tutorials and seminars, and comment on students' written work, as well as setting and marking examinations. (Lecturers at the Open University do not normally give lectures at all; they produce correspondence material for their students, as well as working with BBC colleagues on the production of radio and television programmes.) Most universities have no formal qualifications for the post of lecturer, but in practice lecturers almost always have a good honours degree, and usually a higher degree and research experience in their subject.

In addition, there are sometimes temporary posts such as teaching fellow or tutorial assistant, which are available for a limited period.

As well as the academic posts above, which carry responsibilities for both teaching and research, universities also have posts with research duties alone. Research posts often have short-term contracts and are rarely held on a tenured basis. They are increasingly being funded by external sources, such as industry. Definitions of different levels of appointment are varied and sometimes imprecise, but two broad levels can be distinguished:

Research fellow or research officer People who hold these posts are able to carry out research without supervision. They generally have a higher degree.

The work of research associates or research assistants is carried out under supervision, sometimes as part of a research team. They are often allowed (and expected) to spend part of their time studying for a higher degree.

Public sector higher education institutions (such as polytechnics) have a similar, though not identical hierarchy of posts, but they are too recently established to have acquired the more colourful historic positions and titles of the universities. The head of a public sector institution is usually called the director or principal. Directors are usually assisted by deputies, though sometimes by pro-directors: generally, the former are permanent appointments, the latter temporary appointments from among senior academic staff in rotation.

The most senior post is usually principal lecturer (though some polytechnics have professors); the other posts are senior lecturer, lecturer grade II and lecturer grade I. The ratio of more-senior to more-junior posts allowed in a college depends on the proportions of advanced and less-advanced courses it teaches.