11. Word-building (major types)

1. Affixation: suffixation and prefixation

2. Composition

3. Conversion

4. Shortening

Suffixation.

Educate – educatee.

1. Part-of-speech classification: a) -er (criticizer), -ism (ageism); b) -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious); c) -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify); d) -ly (singly); e) -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).

2. Semantic classification: a) -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student); b) -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English); c) -ry (peasantry), -ship (readership), -ati (literati); d) -ie, - ling, -let (booklet), -ette (kitchenette); e) -ity (answerability); f) -ess (actress), -ine (heroine), -ette (cosmonette); g) -hood (childhood), ness (politeness), -ence/-ance (tolerance); h) -ard (drunkard), -ster (gangster).

3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem: a) -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), -able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization); b) -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -ish (childish); c) -en (weaken), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).

4. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups: a) -er, -ful, -less, -ly, -dom, -ed, -en, -hood, -ing, -ish, -ness, -ship, -teen, -ty, -ward; b) -tion, -ment, -able, -age, -ard, -ance/-ence, -ate; c) -ist, -ism, -ize; d) -nik.

5. Productivity: a) -er, -ize, --ly, -ness; b) -eer, -ette, -ward; c) -ard, -th

Polysemantic suffixes. -er: speaker, teacher, transmitter. Compound suffixes: -ably, -ibly, (terribly, reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt).

Semi-suffixes: -gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic).

Prefixation: happy-unhappy, head – overhead.

1. Semantic classification: a) in- (invaluable), non- (non-symmetric), un- (unhappy); b) de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect); c) inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging).

2. Origin of prefixes: a) native: un-, over-, under-; b) Romanic: in-, de-, ex-, re-; c) Greek: sym-, hyper-.

3. The function of prefixes: a) convertive: em-, de-; bronze – to embronze; bus – to debus; b) non-convertive prefixes: dis-, under-, un-; to agree – to disagree, to go – to undergo, easy – uneasy.

4. Stylistic values: a) un-, over-, re-: unnatural, oversee, resell; b) literary-bookish: ultra (ultra-violet), bi- (bifocal).

5. The grammatical type of the stem prefixes combine with: a) deverbal: re- (rewrite), over-(overdo), out- (outstay); b) denominal: ex- (ex-wife), un- (unbutton), de- (detrain); c) deadjectival: in- (inactive), un- (uneasy), bi- (biannual).

Disputable structure: adverb, accompany; contain, retain, detain; conceive, receive, deceive. After- in the word afternoon.

Composition

a) hard-cover, best-seller; blood-vessel, sky-blue.

b) solid or hyphenated spelling: war-ship, blood-vessel; insofar, underfoot. Block compounds: air piracy, cargo module.

c) to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain; airbus, astrodynamics.

d) These girls are chatter-boxes

a) a green-house, a green house; b) middle-of-the-road, off-the-record

Ways of forming compound words: a) too-too; b) can-do; c) to fingerprint (fingerprinting), to baby-sit (baby-sitter), d) lie-in (sit-in); e) brain-gain (brain-drain).

Classifications of English compounds

1. “parts of speech”: a) baby-moon, globe-trotter, sunbeam, looking-glass, searchlight, blackboard, cutwork; b) free-for-all, power-happy, threadbare, snow-white, red-hot, peace-loving; c) to baby-sit, to henpeck; d) headfirst; e) into, within; f) fifty-five.

2. “the way components are joined”: a) neutral:. ball-point, to windowshop; b) morphological (o, i, s): astrospace, handicraft, sportsman; c) syntactical: here-and-now, free-for-all.

3. “structure”: a) to job-hunt, go-go, tip-top; b) derivational compounds (compound-affixed words): ear-minded; c) singer-songwriter; d) compound-shortened words: VJday, Eurodollar, Camford.

4. “the relations between the components”: a) subordinative compounds: honey-sweet; breast-high, knee-deep; dog-cheap; love-sick; top-heavy; spring-fresh; foot-sore; b) coordinative compounds: secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor (additive); fifty-fifty, no-no; criss-cross, walkie-talkie (rhythmic stems).

5. idiomatic – non-idiomatic: a backboard, airmail.

Reduplicative compounds. Reduplicative compounds proper: tick-tick, blah-blah, pretty-pretty. Ablaut combinations: 1) chit – chat, dilly-dally; 2) ding-dong, ping-pong, singsong. Rhyme combinations: boogie-woogie, harum-scarum, hurry-scurry.

Disputable cases: 1) give up, come off, fall out; 2) “stone wall” type: price rise, wage freeze, steel helmet, sand castle. O. Yespersen: the bottomest end of the scale, a purely family gathering, lonely bare stone houses; I shall not put on a silk dress, I shall put on a cotton one.

3) “mother-in-law type”. Some people are do-it-nowers, others do-it-some-other-times.

E.I. Chapnik classified them into the following groups: 1) evening paper, 2) top floor, 3) steel helmet, 4) war orphan, 5) a crew member, 6) arms production, 7) government threat, price rise, 8) reception hall, 9) Clinton government, Forsyte family, 10) language teacher, psychiatry doctor, 11) moon face, 12) winter apples.

Conversion. Henry Sweet «New English Grammar» in 1891

prof. A.I. Smirntitsky: to dial – dial; a dial, dials – I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing. A. Marchand «The Categories and Types of Present-day English»: I need some good paper for my room; I paper my room every year.

Verbs from nouns: a) to eye, to finger, to elbow, to shoulder; to hammer, to rifle, to nail; b) to crowd, to wolf; c) to fish, to dust, to peel, to paper; d) to park, to garage, to bottle, to corner, to pocket; e) to winter, to week-end.

Verbs from adjectives: to tame, to slim

Nouns from verbs: a) a jump, a move; b) sleep, walk; c) a help, a flirt; d) a burn, a find; e) a drive, a stop, a walk.

Nouns from adverbs: ups and downs.

Criteria of semantic derivation. prof. A.I. Smirnitsky, P.A. Soboleva

1. pen – to pen, father – to father

2. chat n, chat v – conversation n, converse v.

3. hand n., hand v., handy, handful; dance n., dance v., dancer, dancing.

Substantivation of adjectives: a grown-up person – a grown-up.

Perfect substantivization: criminal, criminals, a criminal’s (mistake), criminals’ (mistakes). I am fond of musicals. (musical comedies). Partly substantivized adjectives: 1) sweets, news, empties, finals, greens; 2) the rich, the English, the dead.

Shortening: graphical and lexical.

Graphical abbreviations of Latin origin: for example (Latin exampli gratia), a.m. – in the morning (ante meridiem), No – number (numero), p.a. – a year (per annum), lb - pound (libra), i. e. - that is (id est).

p.m.: post meridiem, post mortem.

Graphical abbreviations of native origin: a) Mon, Tue; b) Apr, Aug – August; c) Yorks, Berks -Berkshire; d) Ala, Alas; e) Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr.; f) capt., col., sgt.; g) B.A., D.M.; h) f. / ft -foot/feet, sec., in., mg..

«m»: male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, «l.p.»: long-playing, low pressure.

Initial abbreviations: J.V. – joint venture; BBC.

ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) – АНЗУС, SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) – СОЛТ, ОСВ. UFO - НЛО.

a) UK, BUP, CND; b) UNESCO, UNO, NATO; c) CLASS (Computor-based Laboratory for Automated School System).

a) AIDSophobia; b) to fly IFR (Instrument Flight Rules), c) STOLport, d). A-bomb,V-day.

Abbreviations of words: to rev from to revolve, to tab from to tabulate; to taxi; comfy; fif.

Apocope: disco, expo, intro, combo, Afro.

Apheresis: chute, varsity, copter, thuse.

Syncope: mart, fanzine, maths.

Apocope + apheresis: tec, van.

Mike (microphone), Coke (coca-cola), fax (facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer).