1.Stylistics as a linguistic science

Stylistics, is a branch of general linguistics. It deals mainly with two interdependent tasks:

a) the investigation of the inventory of special l-ge means, which create the desirable effect of the utterance;

b) types of texts (discourse) which due to the choice & arrangement of l-ge means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication. The types of texts that are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication are called FSs of l-ge (FS); the special media of l-ge which secure the desirable effect of the utterance are called SD & EM. => 2 fields of investigation:

SDs & EMs touches upon such general l-ge problems as aesthetic function of l-ge, synonymous ways of rendering 1 & the same idea, emotional colouring in l-ge, the interrelation b/n l-ge & thought, the individual manner of an author in making use of l-ge.

FS – oral & written varieties of l-ge, the notion of the literary l-ge, the constituents of texts larger than a sentence, the generative aspect of literary texts.

Style from the Latin word 'stilus' – short stick sharp at one end & flat at the other used by the Romans for writing on wax tablets. Some linguists consider that the word 'style' & the subject of linguistic stylistics is confined to the study of the effects of the message, i.e. its impact on the reader.

Individual style is a unique combination of l-ge units, EMs & SDs peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer's works or even utterances easily recognizable. Ind St requires to be studied in a stylistics as it makes use of the potentialities of l-ge means. Of course each author's style should be analysed separately, which is naturally impossible in a book on general stylistics. Deliberate choice of l-ge & the ways the chosen elements are treated - are the main distinctive features of individual style. The treatment of the selected elements brings up the problem of norm.

The Norm should be regarded as the invariant of the phonemic, morphological, lexical & syntactical patterns circulating in l-ge-in-action at a given period of time. Variants of these patterns may sometimes diverge from the invariant but they never exceed the limits set by the invariant, otherwise it should become unrecognizable or misleading. The development of any literary l-ge shows that the variants will always centre around the axis of the invariant forms. The variants, as the term itself suggests, will never detach themselves from the invariant to such a degree as to claim entire independence. Yet, nevertheless, there is a tendency to estimate the value of individual style by the degree it violates the norms of the l-ge

2.The basic categories of Stylistics.

Stylistics –is a brunch of linguistic science wh studies the system of styles, l-ge norms, different means of usage of the literary l-ge in conditions of discourse, in different types and genres of writing, in differ spheres of social life.

The main category of stylistics is expressiveness (Ex). The category of Ex may be understood as a kind of intensification of an utterance or of a part of it depending on the position in the utterance of the means that manifest this category and what these means are.

The notion is often confused with the notion of the emotiveness (Em). Em & the emot means of the l-ge are those that reveal the emotions of writes but not directly. They’re echoes of real emotion. (co-experience in the mind of the reader). E.g.: he sall do it=I shall him do it. Em – as apart of expressiveness occupies a predominant position in the category of expressiveness.

Impressions that are secondary to concepts, in other words, which have been born by concepts, are called imagery. Imagery is mainly produced by the interplay of different meanings. Concrete objects are easily perceived by the senses. Abstract notions are perceived by the mind. When an abstract notion is by the force of the mind represented through a concrete object, an image is the result. Imagery may be built on the interrelation of two abstract notions or two concrete objects or an abstract and a concrete one.

3. EM & their major characteristics.

The l-ge means used for the aims of intensification of the utter-ce – EM. They are phonetic, word-building, lexical, morphological, phraseological and syntactic units and forms which exist in l-ge as a system. Expressive means introduce connotational (stylistic, non-denotative) meanings into utterances. The most powerful means of any l-ge – phonetic. Pitch, stress, melody, position, certain stylistic whispering, a sing-song manner & other ways of using the voice are much > effective than other means in intensifying the utter-ce either emotionally/logically. Morphological EM may be observed in the use of auxilary shall in the 2^nd&3d person (the historical present). To word-building EM belong emotionally coloured suffixes of diminutive nature: -y (-ie), -let (sonny auntie, girlie). To this level also belong neologisms (newspaperdom) or nonce-words(all-rightnic).To lexical expressive means belong words, possessing connotations, such as epithets, poetic and archaic words, slang words, vulgarisms, professionalisms, bookish w-ds & interjections. A chain of expressive synonymic words always contains at least one neutral synonym. Ex: the neutral word money has the following stylistically coloured equivalents: ackers (slang), cole (jargon), gelt (jargon), moo (amer. slang), etc. A chain of expressive synonyms used in a single utterance creates the effect of climax (gradation). To syntactic expressive means belong emphatic syntactic constructions. Such constructions stand in opposition to their neutral equivalents. The neu­tral sentence "John went away" may be replaced by the following expres­sive variants: "Away went John" (stylistic inversion), "John did go away" (use of the emphatic verb "to do"), "John went away, he did" (emphatic confirmation pattern), "It was John who went away" ("It is he who does it" pattern). All kinds of set phrases (phraseological units) generally possess the property of expressiveness. Set phrases, catch words, proverbs, sayings comprise a considerable number of language units which serve to make speech emphatic, mainly from the emotional point of view

Stylistics studies the expressive means of language, but from a spe­cial angle. It takes into account the modifications of meanings which various expressive means undergo when they are used in different func­tional styles. Expressive means have a kind of radiating effect. They noticeably colour the whole of the utterance no matter whether they are logical or emotional.

4. SDes & their major characteristics. Stylistic devices (tropes, figures of speech) unlike EM are not language phenomena. They are formed in speech and most of them do not exist out of context. According to principles of their formation, stylistic devices are grouped into phonetic, lexico-semantic and syntactic types. Basically, all stylistic devices are the result of revaluation of neutral words, word-combinations and syntactic structures. Revaluation makes language units obtain connotations and stylistic value. A stylistic de­vice is the subject matter of stylistic semasiology. Word & context m/acquire additional lex m-ng wh isn’t registed in dictionaries – a contextual m-ng. In such a way interr-n b/n 2 types of lex m-ng – a transferred m-ng. The contextual m-ng always depend on dictionary m-ng in >/< degree, but they can’t be absolutely indep. SD – is a pattern wh/is based on interrel-ns of differ m-ngs, wh c/be observed in the l-ge in use.

5 Stylistic types of m-ng. Imagery."The linguistic term “m-ng” has been “defined in so many ways that there appears an urgent need to clarify it; particularly in view of the fact that in so many lexical, grammatical and phonetic SDs this category is treated differently. A SD is mainly realized when a double application of m-ng is apparent. The problem of m-ng in general linguistics deals mainly with such aspects of the term as the interrelation between m-ng and con­cept, m-ng and sign, m-ng and referent. The general tendency is to regard m-ng as smth stable at a given period of time. This is reasonable, otherwise no dictionary would be able to cope with the problem of defining the m-ng of words. Moreover, no communication would be possible. Words can be classed acc to diff principles: morphologi­cal "(parts of ispech), semantic (synonyms, antonyms, thematic), stylis-lic and other types of classification. In each of these classifications lexical or/and grammatical m-ngs assume diff manifestations. In a morphological classification words are grouped acc to their grammatical m-ngs; in a semantic clas­sification, acc to their logical (referential) m-ngs, in a stylis­tic classification, acc to their stylistic m-ng. In stylistics m-ng is also viewed as a category which is able to acquire m-ngs imposed on the words by the context. That is why such "m-ngs are called contextual m-ngs. This cate­gory also takes under observation m-ngs which have fallen out of use. In stylistics it is important to discriminate shades of m-ng, to atomize the meaning, the component parts of which are now called the semes i.e. the smallest units of which meaning of a Word consists. lexical meaning differs from gr m-ng in more than one way. L e x m-ng refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of ob­jective reality, whether real or imaginary. Lexical meaning is thus a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept.Gг meaning refers our mind to relations b/n words or to some forms of-words or constructions bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-system. Grammatical m-ning can thus be adequately called "structural meaning". The problem of abstractness, and especially the degree of abstractness, is of vital importance in stylistics in more than one respect. Stylistics deals not only with the aesthetic and emotional impact of the language. It also studies the means of producing impressions in our mind. Impres­sion is the first and rudimentary stage of concept. But the concept through a reverse process may build another kind of impression. Impressions that are secondary to concepts, in other words, which have been born by concepts, are called imagery. Imagery is mainly produced by the interplay of different m-ngs. Concrete objects are easily perceived by the senses. Abstract notions are perceived by the mind. When an abstract notion is by the force of the mind represented through a concrete object, an image is the result. Imagery may be built on the interrelation of two abstract notions or two concrete objects or an abstract and a concrete one. Three types of m-ng can be distinguished logical, emotive and nominal. LogicaI m-ng is the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or'object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept. This meaning is also synonymously called referential meaning or direct meaning. Referential m-ngs are liable to change. As a result the referential meanings of one word may denote different concepts. It is therefore nec­essary to distinguish b/n primary and secondary referential m-ng.Thus, the adv.” Inwardly” has the primary m-ng of * in­ternally', within'. Its 2ry logical meanings are: 'towards the centre', 'mentally', 'secretly', which are to some extent derived from the primary meaning. Some dictionaries give a very extended list of pri­mary and 2ry m-ngs, and it is essential for stylistic purposes to distinguish them, as some stylistic devices are built on the interplay of primary and secondary logical meanings.The meanings that are to be found in speech or writing and which are accidental should not be regarded as components of the semantic structure of the word. They may be transitory, th why as they depend on the context. They are contextual m-ngs. Such m-ngs are also called derivative meanings.The potentiality of words can also be noted in regard to emotive m-ng. Emotive m-ng also materializes a concept in the word, but, unlike logical m-ng, emotive m-ng has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings & emo­tions of the speaker towards these things or to his emotions as such. Th why the emotive m-ng bears reference to things, phenomena/ideas through a kind of evaluation of them. Their function is to reveal the subjective, evaluating attitude of the writ­er to the things or events spoken of. Emotional colouring m/be regarded as a rudimentary stage of emotive m-ng: This js generally fixed as an independent meaning in good dictionaries. nominal m-ng is a derivative logical meaning. To distinguish NM from logical m-ng the former is designated by a capital letter. Everest, Black Sea, Thames. Most proper names have NM wh m/be regarded as homonyms of common nouns with their logical or emotive meanings, as Hope, Browning, Taylor, Scotland, Black, Chandler, Chester (from the Latin word castra—'camp'). Thus,logical meanings which nominate an object, at the same time signify the whole class of these objects.

6.temporal differentiation of voc-ry.

Stylistic differ-n of voc-ry is based on the interplay of differ styl aspects of w. the usual cl-n consists of 3 layers: liter, neutr, colloq. Literary & colloq layers contain a № of subgroups each of each has a property shared with all other subgr-ps in the layer. This common property – AN ASPECT. The aspect of the literary layer is bookish character. It makes the layer >/< stable. The asp of colloq layer is lively spoken ch-r. it makes the layer highly unstable. – of the neutral layer is universal char-r. it’s the neutr layer that has no restrictions in its use. Bookish & colloq layers demand a definite sit-n of com-n,wh shapes either the direct/various indirect m-ngs. The literary layers of w-ds consist of gr-ps as leginate members of the Engl voc-ry. They have no local/dialectal char-r. From the temporal p of v the literary voc-ry consists of poetic w-ds, absolescent w-ds & orchaic w-ds. Poetic w-ds – form a rather insignificant layer. They’re mostly orchaic & highly literary w. The main ff-n is to produce an elevated effect. They’re so rarely used in oral & written speech that come more close to terms. PW-ds include: OEngl forms wh ’re still recognized by native sp-rs as having connection to the present functioned w-ds. Most often they’re used in poetry in any other styles they m/have satir, humorous/ironic & even sarcastic ff-n.

Orchaic w-ds wh are no longer recognized in ME. They were used in OE but eithr had dropped out of the l-ge/ had changed their outer form.(troth=faith, a losel= a lasybone). There ‘re some stages for the w-ds to become orchaic. Absolescent w-ds are gradually passing out of the general use. Such as morph. Forms(thou=thee) the 2d group are the w-ds wh have completely fallen out of the contemporary voc-ry. Even not all native sp-rs c/recognize them( OE: methinks= it seems to me). OW-ds are often used in official documents, diplom doc-nts. There’re usually conj-ns hereby, herewith. OW-ds & forms ‘re sometimes used for satirical purposes. This is achieved when the sit-n of comm.-n doesn’t correspond to w-ds used(perfect love, costen of fear) . besides satiric it acquires elevated effect char-sing the sp-r as being highly educated.

Neologisms are newly bom words. Most of them are terms. The layer of terminological neologisms has tfeen rapidly growing since the start of the technological revolution. The sphere of the Internet alone gave birth to thou-sands of new terms which have become international (network, server, brows-er, e-mail, provider, site. Internet Message Access Protocol, Hypertext Transfer Protocol, Microsoft Outlook Express, Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator, etc). The Internet is an immense virtual world with its own language and its people, good or bad. Hacker means "someone who uses a computer to connect to other people's computers secretly and often illegally in order to find or change information". Spammer means "someone who sends emails to large numbers of people on the Internet, especially when these are not wanted". Recent discoveries in biochemistry, genetic engineer-ing, plasma physics, microelectronics, oceanography, cosmonautics and other sciences demanded new words to name new concepts and ideas. The vocab-ulary of our everyday usage is also being enlarged by neologisms. Bancomat means "a European system of automatic cash-ejecting machines". Bank card means "a small plastic card that you use for making payments or for getting money from the bank

7. Etymological differentiation of voc-ry. Stylistic differ-n of voc-ry is based on the interplay of differ styl aspects of w. the usual cl-n consists of 3 layers: liter, neutr, colloq. Literary & colloq layers contain a № of subgroups each of each has a property shared with all other subgr-ps in the layer. This common property – AN ASPECT. The aspect of the literary layer is bookish character. It makes the layer >/< stable. The asp of colloq layer is lively spoken ch-r. it makes the layer highly unstable. – of the neutral layer is universal char-r. it’s the neutr layer that has no restrictions in its use. Bookish & colloq layers demand a definite sit-n of com-n,wh shapes either the direct/various indirect m-ngs. According to the etymology the Engl w-ds are belong to barbarisms & foreignizms.

Barbarisms are w-ds of foreign origin wh/have not entirely been assimilated in the Engl l-ge.(shik=engl=stylish) it-s important to differentiate b/n B-zms & foreign words proper. Foreign w-ds proper ‘re nor registed by engl dictionary, but as a kind of appendixis (from Latin) > frequently used in literary engl. The ff-n is to supply local colourthe way people speak, esp when they try to imitate unknown w by means of their native ones. (and the Critons w/very willig to fead & to hide the Inglisi) the last w-d reproduces the actual pronun-n of the w “the English” by local people.

Barbarisms and foreignisms have the same origin. They are bor-rowings from other l-ges. The greater part of barbarisms was borrowed into English from French and Latin (parvenu – выскочка; protege -протеже; a propos - кстати. Barbarisms are assimilated borrowings. Being part of the English word-stock, they are fixed in dictionaries. Foreignisms are non-assimilated borrowings occasionally used in speech for stylistic reasons. They do not belong to the English vocabulary and are not registered by lexicographers. The main f-tion of barbarisms and foreignisms is to create a realistic background to the stories about foreign habits, customs, traditions and conditions of life.

8. Social differentiation of voc-ry. Stylistic differ-n of voc-ry is based on the interplay of differ styl aspects of w. the usual cl-n consists of 3 layers: liter, neutr, colloq. Literary & colloq layers contain a № of subgroups each of each has a property shared with all other subgr-ps in the layer. This common property – AN ASPECT. The aspect of the literary layer is bookish character. It makes the layer >/< stable. The asp of colloq layer is lively spoken ch-r. it makes the layer highly unstable. – of the neutral layer is universal char-r. it’s the neutr layer that has no restrictions in its use. Bookish & colloq layers demand a definite sit-n of com-n,wh shapes either the direct/various indirect m-ngs. According to the social position of the sp-rs the voc-ry consist of terms & learned w-ds. A term – a special w to talk about a definite brunch of science. T appear in the l-ge, reffering cognit progress, maintained by scholars. It’s directly connected with the conceipt. It denited that they’re mostly used in spec works & belong to the l-ge of science. When used out of habitual contexts a term has a styl ff-n & becomes a special means that is a SD. Most usual in such sit-ns the 2 m-ngs of the term: direct/ contextual. Are materialized simultaneously.( what a fool ha has been to go & marry the governess). There w/smth about a girl – green eyes, fair skin, pr figure, famous frontal dev-nt & manners. Frontal dev-nt is a term from anatomy. In the s-ce it’s used to denote the brest of the woman & acquires smwhat of humorous effect. Terms of general nature are interdisciplinary (approbation, anomaly, interpreta-tion, definition, monograph, etc. ). Semantically narrow terms belong to a definite branch of science (math.: differential, vector, hypotenuse, leg (of a triangle), equation, logarithm). When used in other styles, terms produce different stylistic effects. They may sound humoristically or make speech "clever" and "scientific-like". Academic study has its own terms too. Terms such as palatalization or velarization (phonetics), discourse analysis (sty-listics), hegemony (political philosophy) and objective correlative (literary studies) would not be recognizable by an everyday reader, though they might be understood by someone studying the same subject. Terms should be used with precision, accuracy, and above all restraint. Eric Partridge quotes the following example to illustrate the difference be-tween a statement in technical and non-technical form: Chlorophyll makes food by photosynthesis = Green leaves build up food with the aid of light. When terms are used to show off or impress readers or listeners, they are likely to create the opposite effect. There is not much virtue in using terms such as aerated beverages instead of fizzy drinks. These simply cause disruptions in tone and create a weak style. Here is an even more pretentious example of such weakness: Enjoy your free sample of our moisturizing cleansing bar (in other words - our soap). Archaic words belong to Old English and are not recognized nowadays. The main function of old words is to create a realistic background to historical works of literature. The stylistic function of poetic words is to create poetic images and make speech elevated. Their nature is archaic. Many of poetic words have lost their original charm and become hackneyed conventional symbols due to their constant repetition in poetry

9. Colloquial voc-ry.Stylistic differ-n of voc-ry is based on the interplay of differ styl aspects of w. the usual cl-n consists of 3 layers: liter, neutr, colloq. Literary & colloq layers contain a № of subgroups each of each has a property shared with all other subgr-ps in the layer. This common property – AN ASPECT. The aspect of the literary layer is bookish character. It makes the layer >/< stable. The asp of colloq layer is lively spoken ch-r. it makes the layer highly unstable. – of the neutral layer is universal char-r. it’s the neutr layer that has no restrictions in its use. Bookish & colloq layers demand a definite sit-n of com-n,wh shapes either the direct/various indirect m-ngs. Thus, colloq layer falls into: common colloq w-ds, slang, zhargonizms, prof w-ds, dialects, vulgar w-ds & colloq coinages. Colloq w ‘re always > emotionally coloured than liter ones. Colloq w-ds m/be devided into: high colloq wh come close to the neutral layer of the voc-ry & smtimes enter it. & low colloq( considered to be inappropriate in a public).slang – the > disputable name for a large gr of w in Engl. Official dict-ry devide slang into: cockney, publ house, society, military, theatrical, parlim & so on. The standard slang is an inform l-ge wh is in way of speaking uses differ w-ds in special & metaphoric sence. (groove=smth very enjoyable). Zhargon – is a recognized name for w-ds whos aim is to preserve secrecy within 1 social group. Zh usually coined from old w-ds with entirely new m-ngs.(grease=money). Zh are social in char-r. being used in literary works they charac-ze the social position of the char-r. Zn needs translation. In Engl society are well-known Zh of social gr-ps as thieves, jass-people, sportsmen. If Zh is a secret code, slang isn’t. it c/be understood without transl-n. professionalisms – used in a definite trade. They usually name some working process/implement of labour.they’re special w-ds with a sem-c str-re that cannot be deduced without knowing. Pr are not secrets, but they also char-se the speaker accord the social position.(tin-fish= a prop name of submarine). Dialectal w-ds – w-ds remained beyond the literary layer of voc-ry used in definite locality & in oral variety only. Being met in literary works they illustrate the author’s desire to characterize the sp from the origin of the char-r. in liter works dialects used for speech characteristic.

Vulgarisms – are devided into explitives(used as exclamations & very often lose their semantics) & swear w-ds(sin w-ds ‘re known as foreletter words. Their use is banned in any form as being obsened). V ‘re used out of habbt without any thought what they mean. their ff-n is close to interjections, expressing strong emotions, as special char-stic. Colloq. Coinages -- /re spontageous. They’re built by means of affixes, but based on certain sem-c changes. Common literary & common colloq. ‘re formed in standard Engl voc-ry. Other groups ‘re regarded as spec. literary voc-ry & other gr-ps of colloq. As non-literary voc-ry. Stylistic differ-n is import for adequate use of the w-ds on the course of comm.-n. for the literary worksw-ds of differ-t layers create differ styl ff-ns. This is the pragmatic asp of the l-ge. Wh imposes a definite attitude towards the phen-na described. The sit-ns of commun-n c/be regarded as registers or discourses. All of them have definite f-res, that distinguish then from each other. But it’s mainly the styl refrence of w-d to evaluate the terms of rel-ns among people.