6+7 Relations between Russian and the USA.

The relations between R and the USA under the Bush administration had a very difficult start.

Just weeks after Bush took office (вст в долж), the US expelled (выгнала) more than 50

Russian diplomats on charges of espionage. Moscow responded (ответила) by expelling an

equal number of US diplomats. Such issues as the further expansion of tne NATO and US withdrawal from the ABM Treaty also fueled tensions. Moscows reaction to the September 2001 terrorist attacks appeared to create an opportunity for improvement. Most crucially, R made it clear to the governments of the Central Asian republics that it did not object to a temporary US military presence in the region to wage (вести) the war in Afghanistan. Without R approval, the US would have found it far more difficult to gain the cooperation of those governments. R helped the US in other ways. For example, Moscow resisted the demand of the OPEC to cut its oil output to prevent a fall of global oil prices. As the worlds largest oil producer, R had a crucial role to play. America to announce withdrawal from the ABM Treaty, which Moscow had long regarded as the centerpiece of its relationship with the US on arms-control issues. US officials let it be known that the US intended to maintain a long-term military presence in the Central Asian republics. This was a classic deceit, and R officials made it clear that they were not happy about Washingtons action. R clearly prefers a close cooperative relationship with the US. Serious long-term damage will occur if the R people begin to see the US as a hostile power that always attempts to take advantage of their country. Now US NATO expansion (расширение) around R borders…, nuclear weapons arsenals, arms

8+7 Perspectives of Russian – Chinese relations.

Cooperation between Russia and China has been building for several years. From the 1990s China had become Russias largest arms customer. By 1996 the leaders of 2 countries were describing treir relationship as a “strategic partnership”, and it became routine for R and the Peoples Republic of China to issue joint statements criticizing US policy on such issues as NATO expansion, the development of ballistic-missile defenses. This cooperation has deepened(углубить) on several levels. Its symbolized by the creation of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The SCO membership consists of R, C, and 4 Central Asian countries, has as its primary focus combating (борьба) Islamic extremism. But an important secondary motive – is to contain(содержать) Americas increasingly dominant (преобл) position in Asia. R and C wish to avoid a confrontational relationship with the United States. The triangular relationship R, C and the US is critically important. If the strategic triangle is managed properly (как следует), the danger of a great-power war in the coming decades will be virtually eliminated (устранять).

9. The importance of international Organisations in contemporary world.

The international organizations play the main role in contemporary world. There are: NATO, EU, UN. The end of Cold war has brought a clear turning point for NATO. First, the nature (хар-ер) of risks and potential threats has changed radically. Second, NATO has been going through a process of adaptation, adding to its traditional common defense functions new collective security functions. The principles of basic human rights, international law and multilateral(многостор) action, in the spirit of the UN, must be combined to make NATO a collective force of stability and security. The achievement of this aim can be put at risk by crisis and conflict affecting the security of the Euro-Atlantic area. The Alliance not only ensures the defense of its members but contributes to peace and stability in this region. The EU play an increasing role in helping develop democratic structures in Russia and other countries, as well as helping with building infrastructure, and in areas such as the development of legal systems. The UN was established on 24 October 1945 by 51 countries committed (обязаться) to preserving peace through international cooperation and collective security. Today, nearly every nation in the world belongs to the UN: membership now totals nearly 200 countries. Members of the UN agree to accept the obligations of the UN Charter. According to the Charter, the UN has four purposes: to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations, to cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights, and to be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations. The maintenance of peace, and the prevention of armed conflict are the vital concerns of the UN. Respect for human rights at all times and in all places is a fundamental principle of the Organization. From the outset (начало) UN bodies have cited (ссылаться) the Geneva Conventions and Protocols, and have urged States to ratify.

13. The main organs of the un.

The UN was established on 24 October 1945 by 51 countries committed to preserving peace through international cooperation and collective security. Membership now totals nearly 200 countries. They agree to accept the obligations of the UN Charter. According to the Charter the UN has four purposes: to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations, to cooperate solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights. The UN has 6 main organs. Five of them – the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council and the Secretariat – are based at UN Headquarters in New York. The sixth, the International Court of Justice in Netherlands. The General Assembly – a kind of parliament of nations which meets to consider the worlds most pressing problems. Each member state has one vote. They are solve such as international peace and security, admitting new members. The Assembly hold its annual regular session from September to December. The Security Council primary responsibilities for maintaining international peace and security. There are 15 Council members. Five of them – China, France, Russia, UK, US- are permanent members. The other 10 are elected by the GA for a 2-year term. The Security Council may recommend ways to avoid conflict or secure peace – through negotiations, for example, recourse to the International Court of Justice.

2. The ultimate objectives of conduct of war and of the conduct of foreign policy. The armedforces are the instruments of foreign policy, not its master. No successful andno peaceful foreign policy is possible without observance of this rule. Nonation can pursue a policy of compromise with the military determining the endsand meanings of foreign policy. The armed forces are instruments of war;foreign policy is an instrument of peace. It is true that the ultimateobjectives of the conduct of war and of the conduct of foreign policy areidentical: both serve the national interests. Both, however, differfundamentally in their immediate objectives, in the means they employ, and inthe models of thought they bring to bear upon their respective tasks. The objectiveof war is simple and unconditional: to break the will of the enemy. Its methodsare equally simple and unconditional: to bring the greatest amount of violenceto bear upon the most vulnerable spots in the enemy’s armor. The militaryleader lives in the present and in the immediate future. The sole questionbefore him is how to win victories as cheaply and quickly as possible and howto avoid defeat. Theobjective of foreign policy is relative and conditional: to bend, not to break,the will of the other side as far as necessary in order to safeguard one’s own vitalinterests without hurting those of the other side. The methods of foreignpolicy are relative and conditional: not to advance by destroying the obstaclesin one’s way, to retreat before them, to circumvent them, to maneuver aroundthem, to soften and dissolve them slowly by means of persuasion, negotiations,and pressure. Tosurrender the conduct of foreign affairs to military is to destroy thepossibility of compromise and thus surrender the cause of peace. The militarymind knows nothing how to operate between the absolutes of victory and defeat.It knows nothing of that patient intricate and subtle maneuvering of diplomacy,whose main purpose is to avoid the absolutes of victories and defeats and meetthe other side on the middle ground of negotiated compromise. A foreign policyconducted by military men according to the rules of the military art can onlyend in war. Peace mustbe the goal of any foreign policy. Foreign policy must be conducted in such away as to make the preservation of peace possible and not to make the outbreakof war inevitable. In a society of sovereign nations military force is anecessary instrument of foreign policy. Yet this instrument of foreign policyshould not become the master of foreign policy. As war is fought in order tomake peace possible, foreign policy should be conducted in order to make peacepermanent. For the performance of both tasks, the subordination of the militaryunder civilian authorities which are constitutionally responsible for theconduct of foreign affairs is an indispensable prerequisite.